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Entropy, Volume 23, Issue 5 (May 2021) – 146 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Making good use of photons is critical in single-particle tracking. This work presents a 3D single-particle tracking system that can apply tailored sampling patterns to selectively extract photons that yield the most information for particle localization. Maximizing the information collected from a fixed number of photons is crucial since the total number of photons that can be detected from particles in biological systems is limited. After a thorough investigation of various sampling patterns in 1, 2, and 3 dimensions, we demonstrate that, rather than directly sampling the particle, off-center sampling patterns that overlap the regions of high Fisher information give the highest precision. We show that precision can be doubled in 2D (XY-plane) or 1D (Z-axis) localization, and a ~20% increase in precision was observed in 3D localization. View this paper
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21 pages, 2708 KiB  
Article
Improvement of Contact Tracing with Citizen’s Distributed Risk Maps
by Miguel Rebollo, Rosa María Benito, Juan Carlos Losada and Javier Galeano
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 638; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050638 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2216
Abstract
The rapid spread of COVID-19 has demonstrated the need for accurate information to contain its diffusion. Technological solutions are a complement that can help citizens to be informed about the risk in their environment. Although measures such as contact traceability have been successful [...] Read more.
The rapid spread of COVID-19 has demonstrated the need for accurate information to contain its diffusion. Technological solutions are a complement that can help citizens to be informed about the risk in their environment. Although measures such as contact traceability have been successful in some countries, their use raises society’s resistance. This paper proposes a variation of the consensus processes in directed networks to create a risk map of a determined area. The process shares information with trusted contacts: people we would notify in the case of being infected. When the process converges, each participant would have obtained the risk map for the selected zone. The results are compared with the pilot project’s impact testing of the Spanish contact tracing app (RadarCOVID). The paper also depicts the results combining both strategies: contact tracing to detect potential infections and risk maps to avoid movements into conflictive areas. Although some works affirm that contact tracing apps need 60% of users to control the propagation, our results indicate that a 40% could be enough. On the other hand, the elaboration of risk maps could work with only 20% of active installations, but the effect is to delay the propagation instead of reducing the contagion. With both active strategies, this methodology is able to significantly reduce infected people with fewer participants. Full article
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10 pages, 4727 KiB  
Article
Highway Freight Transportation Diversity of Cities Based on Radiation Models
by Li Wang, Jun-Chao Ma, Zhi-Qiang Jiang, Wanfeng Yan and Wei-Xing Zhou
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 637; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050637 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1860
Abstract
Using a unique data set containing about 15.06 million truck transportation records in five months, we investigate the highway freight transportation diversity of 338 Chinese cities based on the truck transportation probability pij from one city to another. The transportation probabilities [...] Read more.
Using a unique data set containing about 15.06 million truck transportation records in five months, we investigate the highway freight transportation diversity of 338 Chinese cities based on the truck transportation probability pij from one city to another. The transportation probabilities are calculated from the radiation model based on the geographic distance and its cost-based version based on the driving distance as the proxy of cost. For each model, we consider both the population and the gross domestic product (GDP), and find quantitatively very similar results. We find that the transportation probabilities have nice power-law tails with the tail exponents close to 0.5 for all the models. The two transportation probabilities in each model fall around the diagonal pij=pji but are often not the same. In addition, the corresponding transportation probabilities calculated from the raw radiation model and the cost-based radiation model also fluctuate around the diagonal pijgeo=pijcost. We calculate four sets of highway truck transportation diversity according to the four sets of transportation probabilities that are found to be close to each other for each city pair. It is found that the population, the gross domestic product, the in-flux, and the out-flux scale as power laws with respect to the transportation diversity in the raw and cost-based radiation models. It implies that a more developed city usually has higher diversity in highway truck transportation, which reflects the fact that a more developed city usually has a more diverse economic structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Three Risky Decades: A Time for Econophysics?)
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25 pages, 1675 KiB  
Article
Tomographic Description of a Quantum Wave Packet in an Accelerated Frame
by Sergio De Nicola, Renato Fedele, Dušan Jovanović, Margarita A. Man’ko and Vladimir I. Man’ko
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 636; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050636 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1803
Abstract
The tomography of a single quantum particle (i.e., a quantum wave packet) in an accelerated frame is studied. We write the Schrödinger equation in a moving reference frame in which acceleration is uniform in space and an arbitrary function of time. Then, we [...] Read more.
The tomography of a single quantum particle (i.e., a quantum wave packet) in an accelerated frame is studied. We write the Schrödinger equation in a moving reference frame in which acceleration is uniform in space and an arbitrary function of time. Then, we reduce such a problem to the study of spatiotemporal evolution of the wave packet in an inertial frame in the presence of a homogeneous force field but with an arbitrary time dependence. We demonstrate the existence of a Gaussian wave packet solution, for which the position and momentum uncertainties are unaffected by the uniform force field. This implies that, similar to in the case of a force-free motion, the uncertainty product is unaffected by acceleration. In addition, according to the Ehrenfest theorem, the wave packet centroid moves according to classic Newton’s law of a particle experiencing the effects of uniform acceleration. Furthermore, as in free motion, the wave packet exhibits a diffraction spread in the configuration space but not in momentum space. Then, using Radon transform, we determine the quantum tomogram of the Gaussian state evolution in the accelerated frame. Finally, we characterize the wave packet evolution in the accelerated frame in terms of optical and simplectic tomogram evolution in the related tomographic space. Full article
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14 pages, 573 KiB  
Article
Quantumness Measures for a System of Two Qubits Interacting with a Field in the Presence of the Time-Dependent Interaction and Kerr Medium
by Sayed Abdel-Khalek, Kamal Berrada, Eied M. Khalil, Abdel-Shafy F. Obada, Esraa Reda and Hichem Eleuch
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 635; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050635 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1814
Abstract
In this work, we introduce the standard Tavis-Cummings model to describe two-qubit system interacting with a single-mode field associated to power-law (PL) potentials. We explore the effect of the time-dependent interaction and the Kerr-like medium. We solve the Schrödinger equation to obtain the [...] Read more.
In this work, we introduce the standard Tavis-Cummings model to describe two-qubit system interacting with a single-mode field associated to power-law (PL) potentials. We explore the effect of the time-dependent interaction and the Kerr-like medium. We solve the Schrödinger equation to obtain the density operator that allows us to investigate the dynamical behaviour of some quantumness measures, such as von Neumann entropy, negativity and Mandel’s parameter. We provide how these entanglement measures depend on the system parameters, which paves the way towards better control of entanglement generation in two-qubit systems. We find that the enhancement and preservation of the atoms-field entanglement and atom-atom entanglement can be achieved by a proper choice of the initial parameters of the field in the absence and presence of the time-dependent interaction and Kerr medium. We examine the photons distribution of the field and determine the situations for which the field exhibits super-poissonian, poissonian or sub-poissonian distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Quantum Systems)
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11 pages, 257 KiB  
Article
Invariant Quantum States of Quadratic Hamiltonians
by Viktor V. Dodonov
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 634; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050634 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1989
Abstract
The problem of finding covariance matrices that remain constant in time for arbitrary multi-dimensional quadratic Hamiltonians (including those with time-dependent coefficients) is considered. General solutions are obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Information and Quantum Optics)
31 pages, 17020 KiB  
Article
Model Decoupled Synchronization Control Design with Fractional Order Filter for H-Type Air Floating Motion Platform
by Yixiu Sun, Lizhan Zeng, Ying Luo and Xiaoqing Li
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 633; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050633 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1979
Abstract
H-type motion platform with linear motors is widely used in two-degrees-of-freedom motion systems, and one-direction dual motors need to be precisely controlled with strict synchronization for high precision performance. In this paper, a synchronous control method based on model decoupling is proposed. The [...] Read more.
H-type motion platform with linear motors is widely used in two-degrees-of-freedom motion systems, and one-direction dual motors need to be precisely controlled with strict synchronization for high precision performance. In this paper, a synchronous control method based on model decoupling is proposed. The dynamic model of an H-type air floating motion platform is established and one direction control using two motors with position dependency coupling is decoupled and converted into independent position and rotation controls, separately. For the low damping second-order oscillation system of the rotation control loop, a new fractional order biquad filtering method is proposed to generate an antiresonance peak to improve the phase and control gain of the open loop system, which can ensure system stability and quick attenuation for external disturbances. In the multiple-degree-of-freedom decoupled control loops, a systematic feedback controller design methodology is proposed to satisfy the given frequency domain design specifications; a feed-forward control strategy is also applied to compensate the disturbance torque caused by the platform motion. The simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed synchronization control method is effective, and achieves better disturbance rejection performance than the existing optimal cancellation filtering method and biquad filtering method. Full article
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16 pages, 273 KiB  
Article
Is the Devil in h?
by Andrei Khrennikov
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 632; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050632 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2185
Abstract
This note is a part of my effort to rid quantum mechanics (QM) nonlocality. Quantum nonlocality is a two faced Janus: one face is a genuine quantum mechanical nonlocality (defined by the Lüders’ projection postulate). Another face is the nonlocality of the hidden [...] Read more.
This note is a part of my effort to rid quantum mechanics (QM) nonlocality. Quantum nonlocality is a two faced Janus: one face is a genuine quantum mechanical nonlocality (defined by the Lüders’ projection postulate). Another face is the nonlocality of the hidden variables model that was invented by Bell. This paper is devoted the deconstruction of the latter. The main casualty of Bell’s model is that it straightforwardly contradicts Heisenberg’s uncertainty and Bohr’s complementarity principles generally. Thus, we do not criticize the derivation or interpretation of the Bell inequality (as was done by numerous authors). Our critique is directed against the model as such. The original Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) argument assumed the Heisenberg’s principle without questioning its validity. Hence, the arguments of EPR and Bell differ crucially, and it is necessary to establish the physical ground of the aforementioned principles. This is the quantum postulate: the existence of an indivisible quantum of action given by the Planck constant. Bell’s approach with hidden variables implicitly implies rejection of the quantum postulate, since the latter is the basis of the reference principles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Probability and Randomness III)
1 pages, 169 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Gill, R.D. Does Geometric Algebra Provide a Loophole to Bell’s Theorem? Entropy 2020, 22, 61
by Richard David Gill
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 631; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050631 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1810
Abstract
Corrections are made to my paper “Gill, R.D. Does Geometric Algebra Provide a Loophole to Bell’s Theorem? Entropy 2020, 22, 61” [...] Full article
8 pages, 247 KiB  
Reply
Reply to Pessoa, P.; Arderucio Costa, B. Comment on “Tsallis, C. Black Hole Entropy: A Closer Look. Entropy 2020, 22, 17”
by Constantino Tsallis
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 630; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050630 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1860
Abstract
In the present Reply we restrict our focus only onto the main erroneous claims by Pessoa and Costa in their recent Comment (Entropy 2020, 22, 1110). Full article
21 pages, 6963 KiB  
Article
Asymptotic Entanglement Sudden Death in Two Atoms with Dipole–Dipole and Ising Interactions Coupled to a Radiation Field at Non-Zero Detuning
by Gehad Sadiek, Wiam Al-Dress, Salwa Shaglel and Hala Elhag
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 629; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050629 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2049
Abstract
We investigate the time evolution and asymptotic behavior of a system of two two-level atoms (qubits) interacting off-resonance with a single mode radiation field. The two atoms are coupled to each other through dipole–dipole as well as Ising interactions. An exact analytic solution [...] Read more.
We investigate the time evolution and asymptotic behavior of a system of two two-level atoms (qubits) interacting off-resonance with a single mode radiation field. The two atoms are coupled to each other through dipole–dipole as well as Ising interactions. An exact analytic solution for the system dynamics that spans the entire phase space is provided. We focus on initial states that cause the system to evolve to entanglement sudden death (ESD) between the two atoms. We find that combining the Ising and dipole–dipole interactions is very powerful in controlling the entanglement dynamics and ESD compared with either one of them separately. Their effects on eliminating ESD may add up constructively or destructively depending on the type of Ising interaction (Ferromagnetic or anti-Ferromagnetic), the detuning parameter value, and the initial state of the system. The asymptotic behavior of the ESD is found to depend substantially on the initial state of the system, where ESD can be entirely eliminated by tuning the system parameters except in the case of an initial correlated Bell state. Interestingly, the entanglement, atomic population and quantum correlation between the two atoms and the field synchronize and reach asymptotically quasi-steady dynamic states. Each one of them ends up as a continuous irregular oscillation, where the collapse periods vanish, with a limited amplitude and an approximately constant mean value that depend on the initial state and the system parameters choice. This indicates an asymptotic continuous exchange of energy (and strong quantum correlation) between the atoms and the field takes place, accompanied by diminished ESD for these chosen setups of the system. This system can be realized in spin states of quantum dots or Rydberg atoms in optical cavities, and superconducting or hybrid qubits in linear resonators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Quantum Information)
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26 pages, 9773 KiB  
Article
Multi-Person Tracking and Crowd Behavior Detection via Particles Gradient Motion Descriptor and Improved Entropy Classifier
by Faisal Abdullah, Yazeed Yasin Ghadi, Munkhjargal Gochoo, Ahmad Jalal and Kibum Kim
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 628; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050628 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2717
Abstract
To prevent disasters and to control and supervise crowds, automated video surveillance has become indispensable. In today’s complex and crowded environments, manual surveillance and monitoring systems are inefficient, labor intensive, and unwieldy. Automated video surveillance systems offer promising solutions, but challenges remain. One [...] Read more.
To prevent disasters and to control and supervise crowds, automated video surveillance has become indispensable. In today’s complex and crowded environments, manual surveillance and monitoring systems are inefficient, labor intensive, and unwieldy. Automated video surveillance systems offer promising solutions, but challenges remain. One of the major challenges is the extraction of true foregrounds of pixels representing humans only. Furthermore, to accurately understand and interpret crowd behavior, human crowd behavior (HCB) systems require robust feature extraction methods, along with powerful and reliable decision-making classifiers. In this paper, we describe our approach to these issues by presenting a novel Particles Force Model for multi-person tracking, a vigorous fusion of global and local descriptors, along with a robust improved entropy classifier for detecting and interpreting crowd behavior. In the proposed model, necessary preprocessing steps are followed by the application of a first distance algorithm for the removal of background clutter; true-foreground elements are then extracted via a Particles Force Model. The detected human forms are then counted by labeling and performing cluster estimation, using a K-nearest neighbors search algorithm. After that, the location of all the human silhouettes is fixed and, using the Jaccard similarity index and normalized cross-correlation as a cost function, multi-person tracking is performed. For HCB detection, we introduced human crowd contour extraction as a global feature and a particles gradient motion (PGD) descriptor, along with geometrical and speeded up robust features (SURF) for local features. After features were extracted, we applied bat optimization for optimal features, which also works as a pre-classifier. Finally, we introduced a robust improved entropy classifier for decision making and automated crowd behavior detection in smart surveillance systems. We evaluated the performance of our proposed system on a publicly available benchmark PETS2009 and UMN dataset. Experimental results show that our system performed better compared to existing well-known state-of-the-art methods by achieving higher accuracy rates. The proposed system can be deployed to great benefit in numerous public places, such as airports, shopping malls, city centers, and train stations to control, supervise, and protect crowds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy in Image Analysis III)
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13 pages, 3249 KiB  
Article
Predictive Sequential Research Design to Study Complex Social Phenomena
by Romel Ramón González-Díaz and Gladys Inés Bustamante-Cabrera
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 627; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050627 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3968
Abstract
Social phenomena in their simplest form share infinite complexities and relationships, and by interacting with other entities, their levels of complexity become exponentially inexplicable and incomprehensible. Using a single form of study in complex phenomena could be insufficient, and new forms of analysis [...] Read more.
Social phenomena in their simplest form share infinite complexities and relationships, and by interacting with other entities, their levels of complexity become exponentially inexplicable and incomprehensible. Using a single form of study in complex phenomena could be insufficient, and new forms of analysis should be opened that allow for observing the multidimensionality of study problems from integrative perspectives. The emergence of research using mixed methods attempts to reconcile these methodologies through integration, configuring a stage of interconnection between research paradigms that cause cuts and leaks that may or may not be consistent with the study’s object. At the time of integration, vices can be created by specific value and subjectivity judgments, with investigative diffraction being an alternative to extend integration through data fracture and redirecting the object of study. This work proposes a Predictive Sequential Research Design (DISPRE) for complex social phenomena, which uses fuzzy logic as a tool to solve the information biases caused by the investigative diffraction of each methodological approach as a strategy to capture, explain, understand and predict the intrinsic complexity of the social entity under study. Full article
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15 pages, 3680 KiB  
Article
Impact of Coronavirus Outbreaks on Science and Society: Insights from Temporal Bibliometry of SARS and COVID-19
by Ramya Gupta, Abhishek Prasad, Suresh Babu and Gitanjali Yadav
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 626; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050626 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2675
Abstract
A global event such as the COVID-19 crisis presents new, often unexpected responses that are fascinating to investigate from both scientific and social standpoints. Despite several documented similarities, the coronavirus pandemic is clearly distinct from the 1918 flu pandemic in terms of our [...] Read more.
A global event such as the COVID-19 crisis presents new, often unexpected responses that are fascinating to investigate from both scientific and social standpoints. Despite several documented similarities, the coronavirus pandemic is clearly distinct from the 1918 flu pandemic in terms of our exponentially increased, almost instantaneous ability to access/share information, offering an unprecedented opportunity to visualise rippling effects of global events across space and time. Personal devices provide “big data” on people’s movement, the environment and economic trends, while access to the unprecedented flurry in scientific publications and media posts provides a measure of the response of the educated world to the crisis. Most bibliometric (co-authorship, co-citation, or bibliographic coupling) analyses ignore the time dimension, but COVID-19 has made it possible to perform a detailed temporal investigation into the pandemic. Here, we report a comprehensive network analysis based on more than 20,000 published documents on viral epidemics, authored by over 75,000 individuals from 140 nations in the past one year of the crisis. Unlike the 1918 flu pandemic, access to published data over the past two decades enabled a comparison of publishing trends between the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and those of the 2003 SARS epidemic to study changes in thematic foci and societal pressures dictating research over the course of a crisis. Full article
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10 pages, 255 KiB  
Article
Interpolating between Positive and Completely Positive Maps: A New Hierarchy of Entangled States
by Katarzyna Siudzińska, Sagnik Chakraborty and Dariusz Chruściński
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 625; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050625 - 18 May 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1954
Abstract
A new class of positive maps is introduced. It interpolates between positive and completely positive maps. It is shown that this class gives rise to a new characterization of entangled states. Additionally, it provides a refinement of the well-known classes of entangled states [...] Read more.
A new class of positive maps is introduced. It interpolates between positive and completely positive maps. It is shown that this class gives rise to a new characterization of entangled states. Additionally, it provides a refinement of the well-known classes of entangled states characterized in terms of the Schmidt number. The analysis is illustrated with examples of qubit maps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Information and Quantum Optics)
26 pages, 1468 KiB  
Article
Entanglement and Photon Anti-Bunching in Coupled Non-Degenerate Parametric Oscillators
by Yoshitaka Inui and Yoshihisa Yamamoto
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 624; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050624 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2899
Abstract
We analytically and numerically show that the Hillery-Zubairy’s entanglement criterion is satisfied both below and above the threshold of coupled non-degenerate optical parametric oscillators (NOPOs) with strong nonlinear gain saturation and dissipative linear coupling. We investigated two cases: for large pump mode dissipation, [...] Read more.
We analytically and numerically show that the Hillery-Zubairy’s entanglement criterion is satisfied both below and above the threshold of coupled non-degenerate optical parametric oscillators (NOPOs) with strong nonlinear gain saturation and dissipative linear coupling. We investigated two cases: for large pump mode dissipation, below-threshold entanglement is possible only when the parametric interaction has an enough detuning among the signal, idler, and pump photon modes. On the other hand, for a large dissipative coupling, below-threshold entanglement is possible even when there is no detuning in the parametric interaction. In both cases, a non-Gaussian state entanglement criterion is satisfied even at the threshold. Recent progress in nano-photonic devices might make it possible to experimentally demonstrate this phase transition in a coherent XY machine with quantum correlations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Measurement and Control in Quantum Machine Learning)
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13 pages, 274 KiB  
Article
Fractional Deng Entropy and Extropy and Some Applications
by Mohammad Reza Kazemi, Saeid Tahmasebi, Francesco Buono and Maria Longobardi
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 623; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050623 - 17 May 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 2586
Abstract
Deng entropy and extropy are two measures useful in the Dempster–Shafer evidence theory (DST) to study uncertainty, following the idea that extropy is the dual concept of entropy. In this paper, we present their fractional versions named fractional Deng entropy and extropy and [...] Read more.
Deng entropy and extropy are two measures useful in the Dempster–Shafer evidence theory (DST) to study uncertainty, following the idea that extropy is the dual concept of entropy. In this paper, we present their fractional versions named fractional Deng entropy and extropy and compare them to other measures in the framework of DST. Here, we study the maximum for both of them and give several examples. Finally, we analyze a problem of classification in pattern recognition in order to highlight the importance of these new measures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measures of Information)
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19 pages, 379 KiB  
Article
A Quantum Walk Model for Idea Propagation in Social Network and Group Decision Making
by Qizi Zhang and Jerome Busemeyer
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 622; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050622 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2463
Abstract
We propose a quantum walk model to investigate the propagation of ideas in a network and the formation of agreement in group decision making. In more detail, we consider two different graphs describing the connections of agents in the network: the line graph [...] Read more.
We propose a quantum walk model to investigate the propagation of ideas in a network and the formation of agreement in group decision making. In more detail, we consider two different graphs describing the connections of agents in the network: the line graph and the ring graph. Our main interest is to deduce the dynamics for such propagation, and to investigate the influence of compliance of the agents and graph structure on the decision time and the final decision. The methodology is based on the use of control-U gates in quantum computing. The original state of the network is used as controller and its mirrored state is used as target. The state of the quantum walk is the tensor product of the original state and the mirror state. In this way, the proposed quantum walk model is able to describe asymmetric influence between agents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Models of Cognition and Decision-Making)
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22 pages, 3022 KiB  
Article
Information Theoretic Causality Detection between Financial and Sentiment Data
by Roberta Scaramozzino, Paola Cerchiello and Tomaso Aste
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 621; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050621 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4191
Abstract
The interaction between the flow of sentiment expressed on blogs and media and the dynamics of the stock market prices are analyzed through an information-theoretic measure, the transfer entropy, to quantify causality relations. We analyzed daily stock price and daily social media sentiment [...] Read more.
The interaction between the flow of sentiment expressed on blogs and media and the dynamics of the stock market prices are analyzed through an information-theoretic measure, the transfer entropy, to quantify causality relations. We analyzed daily stock price and daily social media sentiment for the top 50 companies in the Standard & Poor (S&P) index during the period from November 2018 to November 2020. We also analyzed news mentioning these companies during the same period. We found that there is a causal flux of information that links those companies. The largest fraction of significant causal links is between prices and between sentiments, but there is also significant causal information which goes both ways from sentiment to prices and from prices to sentiment. We observe that the strongest causal signal between sentiment and prices is associated with the Tech sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Causal Discovery of Time Series)
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21 pages, 6872 KiB  
Article
3E-Net: Entropy-Based Elastic Ensemble of Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Grading of Invasive Breast Carcinoma Histopathological Microscopic Images
by Zakaria Senousy, Mohammed M. Abdelsamea, Mona Mostafa Mohamed and Mohamed Medhat Gaber
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 620; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050620 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3295
Abstract
Automated grading systems using deep convolution neural networks (DCNNs) have proven their capability and potential to distinguish between different breast cancer grades using digitized histopathological images. In digital breast pathology, it is vital to measure how confident a DCNN is in grading using [...] Read more.
Automated grading systems using deep convolution neural networks (DCNNs) have proven their capability and potential to distinguish between different breast cancer grades using digitized histopathological images. In digital breast pathology, it is vital to measure how confident a DCNN is in grading using a machine-confidence metric, especially with the presence of major computer vision challenging problems such as the high visual variability of the images. Such a quantitative metric can be employed not only to improve the robustness of automated systems, but also to assist medical professionals in identifying complex cases. In this paper, we propose Entropy-based Elastic Ensemble of DCNN models (3E-Net) for grading invasive breast carcinoma microscopy images which provides an initial stage of explainability (using an uncertainty-aware mechanism adopting entropy). Our proposed model has been designed in a way to (1) exclude images that are less sensitive and highly uncertain to our ensemble model and (2) dynamically grade the non-excluded images using the certain models in the ensemble architecture. We evaluated two variations of 3E-Net on an invasive breast carcinoma dataset and we achieved grading accuracy of 96.15% and 99.50%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medical Information Processing)
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19 pages, 510 KiB  
Article
Diffusion Model of a Non-Integer Order PIγ Controller with TCP/UDP Streams
by Dariusz Marek, Adam Domański, Joanna Domańska, Jakub Szyguła, Tadeusz Czachórski and Jerzy Klamka
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 619; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050619 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1998
Abstract
In this article, a way to employ the diffusion approximation to model interplay between TCP and UDP flows is presented. In order to control traffic congestion, an environment of IP routers applying AQM (Active Queue Management) algorithms has been introduced. Furthermore, the impact [...] Read more.
In this article, a way to employ the diffusion approximation to model interplay between TCP and UDP flows is presented. In order to control traffic congestion, an environment of IP routers applying AQM (Active Queue Management) algorithms has been introduced. Furthermore, the impact of the fractional controller PIγ and its parameters on the transport protocols is investigated. The controller has been elaborated in accordance with the control theory. The TCP and UDP flows are transmitted simultaneously and are mutually independent. Only the TCP is controlled by the AQM algorithm. Our diffusion model allows a single TCP or UDP flow to start or end at any time, which distinguishes it from those previously described in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Information Theory, Probability and Statistics)
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14 pages, 420 KiB  
Article
A Compression-Based Method for Detecting Anomalies in Textual Data
by Gonzalo de la Torre-Abaitua, Luis Fernando Lago-Fernández and David Arroyo
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 618; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050618 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2485
Abstract
Nowadays, information and communications technology systems are fundamental assets of our social and economical model, and thus they should be properly protected against the malicious activity of cybercriminals. Defence mechanisms are generally articulated around tools that trace and store information in several ways, [...] Read more.
Nowadays, information and communications technology systems are fundamental assets of our social and economical model, and thus they should be properly protected against the malicious activity of cybercriminals. Defence mechanisms are generally articulated around tools that trace and store information in several ways, the simplest one being the generation of plain text files coined as security logs. Such log files are usually inspected, in a semi-automatic way, by security analysts to detect events that may affect system integrity, confidentiality and availability. On this basis, we propose a parameter-free method to detect security incidents from structured text regardless its nature. We use the Normalized Compression Distance to obtain a set of features that can be used by a Support Vector Machine to classify events from a heterogeneous cybersecurity environment. In particular, we explore and validate the application of our method in four different cybersecurity domains: HTTP anomaly identification, spam detection, Domain Generation Algorithms tracking and sentiment analysis. The results obtained show the validity and flexibility of our approach in different security scenarios with a low configuration burden. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Information Theoretic Security and Privacy of Information Systems)
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22 pages, 3805 KiB  
Article
Investigation on Identifying Implicit Learning Event from EEG Signal Using Multiscale Entropy and Artificial Bee Colony
by Chayapol Chaiyanan, Keiji Iramina and Boonserm Kaewkamnerdpong
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 617; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050617 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1905
Abstract
The way people learn will play an essential role in the sustainable development of the educational system for the future. Utilizing technology in the age of information and incorporating it into how people learn can produce better learners. Implicit learning is a type [...] Read more.
The way people learn will play an essential role in the sustainable development of the educational system for the future. Utilizing technology in the age of information and incorporating it into how people learn can produce better learners. Implicit learning is a type of learning of the underlying rules without consciously seeking or understanding the rules; it is commonly seen in small children while learning how to speak their native language without learning grammar. This research aims to introduce a processing system that can systematically identify the relationship between implicit learning events and their Encephalogram (EEG) signal characteristics. This study converted the EEG signal from participants while performing cognitive task experiments into Multiscale Entropy (MSE) data. Using MSE data from different frequency bands and channels as features, the system explored a wide range of classifiers and observed their performance to see how they classified the features related to participants’ performance. The Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) method was used for feature selection to improve the process to make the system more efficient. The results showed that the system could correctly identify the differences between participants’ performance using MSE data and the ABC method with 95% confidence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy and Its Applications across Disciplines II)
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8 pages, 1573 KiB  
Article
Hidden Attractors in Discrete Dynamical Systems
by Marek Berezowski and Marcin Lawnik
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 616; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050616 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1971
Abstract
Research using chaos theory allows for a better understanding of many phenomena modeled by means of dynamical systems. The appearance of chaos in a given process can lead to very negative effects, e.g., in the construction of bridges or in systems based on [...] Read more.
Research using chaos theory allows for a better understanding of many phenomena modeled by means of dynamical systems. The appearance of chaos in a given process can lead to very negative effects, e.g., in the construction of bridges or in systems based on chemical reactors. This problem is important, especially when in a given dynamic process there are so-called hidden attractors. In the scientific literature, we can find many works that deal with this issue from both the theoretical and practical points of view. The vast majority of these works concern multidimensional continuous systems. Our work shows these attractors in discrete systems. They can occur in Newton’s recursion and in numerical integration. Full article
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16 pages, 45388 KiB  
Article
A Foreground-Aware Framework for Local Face Attribute Transfer
by Yuanbin Fu, Jiayi Ma and Xiaojie Guo
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 615; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050615 - 16 May 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2140
Abstract
In the context of social media, large amounts of headshot photos are taken everyday. Unfortunately, in addition to laborious editing and modification, creating a visually compelling photographic masterpiece for sharing requires advanced professional skills, which are difficult for ordinary Internet users. Though there [...] Read more.
In the context of social media, large amounts of headshot photos are taken everyday. Unfortunately, in addition to laborious editing and modification, creating a visually compelling photographic masterpiece for sharing requires advanced professional skills, which are difficult for ordinary Internet users. Though there are many algorithms automatically and globally transferring the style from one image to another, they fail to respect the semantics of the scene and are unable to allow users to merely transfer the attributes of one or two face organs in the foreground region leaving the background region unchanged. To overcome this problem, we developed a novel framework for semantically meaningful local face attribute transfer, which can flexibly transfer the local attribute of a face organ from the reference image to a semantically equivalent organ in the input image, while preserving the background. Our method involves warping the reference photo to match the shape, pose, location, and expression of the input image. The fusion of the warped reference image and input image is then taken as the initialized image for a neural style transfer algorithm. Our method achieves better performance in terms of inception score (3.81) and Fréchet inception distance (80.31), which is about 10% higher than those of competitors, indicating that our framework is capable of producing high-quality and photorealistic attribute transfer results. Both theoretical findings and experimental results are provided to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed framework, reveal its superiority over other state-of-the-art alternatives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Image Fusion)
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21 pages, 3608 KiB  
Article
Functional Interdependence in Coupled Dissipative Structures: Physical Foundations of Biological Coordination
by Benjamin De Bari, Alexandra Paxton, Dilip K. Kondepudi, Bruce A. Kay and James A. Dixon
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 614; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050614 - 15 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2473
Abstract
Coordination within and between organisms is one of the most complex abilities of living systems, requiring the concerted regulation of many physiological constituents, and this complexity can be particularly difficult to explain by appealing to physics. A valuable framework for understanding biological coordination [...] Read more.
Coordination within and between organisms is one of the most complex abilities of living systems, requiring the concerted regulation of many physiological constituents, and this complexity can be particularly difficult to explain by appealing to physics. A valuable framework for understanding biological coordination is the coordinative structure, a self-organized assembly of physiological elements that collectively performs a specific function. Coordinative structures are characterized by three properties: (1) multiple coupled components, (2) soft-assembly, and (3) functional organization. Coordinative structures have been hypothesized to be specific instantiations of dissipative structures, non-equilibrium, self-organized, physical systems exhibiting complex pattern formation in structure and behaviors. We pursued this hypothesis by testing for these three properties of coordinative structures in an electrically-driven dissipative structure. Our system demonstrates dynamic reorganization in response to functional perturbation, a behavior of coordinative structures called reciprocal compensation. Reciprocal compensation is corroborated by a dynamical systems model of the underlying physics. This coordinated activity of the system appears to derive from the system’s intrinsic end-directed behavior to maximize the rate of entropy production. The paper includes three primary components: (1) empirical data on emergent coordinated phenomena in a physical system, (2) computational simulations of this physical system, and (3) theoretical evaluation of the empirical and simulated results in the context of physics and the life sciences. This study reveals similarities between an electrically-driven dissipative structure that exhibits end-directed behavior and the goal-oriented behaviors of more complex living systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Entropy and Social Physics)
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23 pages, 454 KiB  
Article
DRL-Assisted Resource Allocation for NOMA-MEC Offloading with Hybrid SIC
by Haodong Li, Fang Fang and Zhiguo Ding
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 613; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050613 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2432
Abstract
Multi-access edge computing (MEC) and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) are regarded as promising technologies to improve the computation capability and offloading efficiency of mobile devices in the sixth-generation (6G) mobile system. This paper mainly focused on the hybrid NOMA-MEC system, where multiple users [...] Read more.
Multi-access edge computing (MEC) and non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) are regarded as promising technologies to improve the computation capability and offloading efficiency of mobile devices in the sixth-generation (6G) mobile system. This paper mainly focused on the hybrid NOMA-MEC system, where multiple users were first grouped into pairs, and users in each pair offloaded their tasks simultaneously by NOMA, then a dedicated time duration was scheduled to the more delay-tolerant user for uploading the remaining data by orthogonal multiple access (OMA). For the conventional NOMA uplink transmission, successive interference cancellation (SIC) was applied to decode the superposed signals successively according to the channel state information (CSI) or the quality of service (QoS) requirement. In this work, we integrated the hybrid SIC scheme, which dynamically adapts the SIC decoding order among all NOMA groups. To solve the user grouping problem, a deep reinforcement learning (DRL)-based algorithm was proposed to obtain a close-to-optimal user grouping policy. Moreover, we optimally minimized the offloading energy consumption by obtaining the closed-form solution to the resource allocation problem. Simulation results showed that the proposed algorithm converged fast, and the NOMA-MEC scheme outperformed the existing orthogonal multiple access (OMA) scheme. Full article
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14 pages, 3710 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Two-Photon Quantum Battery: Initial Conditions, Stability and Work Extraction
by Anna Delmonte, Alba Crescente, Matteo Carrega, Dario Ferraro and Maura Sassetti
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 612; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050612 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3274
Abstract
We consider a quantum battery that is based on a two-level system coupled with a cavity radiation by means of a two-photon interaction. Various figures of merit, such as stored energy, average charging power, energy fluctuations, and extractable work are investigated, considering, as [...] Read more.
We consider a quantum battery that is based on a two-level system coupled with a cavity radiation by means of a two-photon interaction. Various figures of merit, such as stored energy, average charging power, energy fluctuations, and extractable work are investigated, considering, as possible initial conditions for the cavity, a Fock state, a coherent state, and a squeezed state. We show that the first state leads to better performances for the battery. However, a coherent state with the same average number of photons, even if it is affected by stronger fluctuations in the stored energy, results in quite interesting performance, in particular since it allows for almost completely extracting the stored energy as usable work at short enough times. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics in the Quantum Regime)
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12 pages, 3004 KiB  
Article
New Equation for Predicting Pipe Friction Coefficients Using the Statistical Based Entropy Concepts
by Yeon-Woong Choe, Sang-Bo Sim and Yeon-Moon Choo
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 611; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050611 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2188
Abstract
In general, this new equation is significant for designing and operating a pipeline to predict flow discharge. In order to predict the flow discharge, accurate determination of the flow loss due to pipe friction is very important. However, existing pipe friction coefficient equations [...] Read more.
In general, this new equation is significant for designing and operating a pipeline to predict flow discharge. In order to predict the flow discharge, accurate determination of the flow loss due to pipe friction is very important. However, existing pipe friction coefficient equations have difficulties in obtaining key variables or those only applicable to pipes with specific conditions. Thus, this study develops a new equation for predicting pipe friction coefficients using statistically based entropy concepts, which are currently being used in various fields. The parameters in the proposed equation can be easily obtained and are easy to estimate. Existing formulas for calculating pipe friction coefficient requires the friction head loss and Reynolds number. Unlike existing formulas, the proposed equation only requires pipe specifications, entropy value and average velocity. The developed equation can predict the friction coefficient by using the well-known entropy, the mean velocity and the pipe specifications. The comparison results with the Nikuradse’s experimental data show that the R2 and RMSE values were 0.998 and 0.000366 in smooth pipe, and 0.979 to 0.994 or 0.000399 to 0.000436 in rough pipe, and the discrepancy ratio analysis results show that the accuracy of both results in smooth and rough pipes is very close to zero. The proposed equation will enable the easier estimation of flow rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Information Theory, Probability and Statistics)
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20 pages, 4084 KiB  
Article
A Caputo–Fabrizio Fractional-Order Model of HIV/AIDS with a Treatment Compartment: Sensitivity Analysis and Optimal Control Strategies
by Hua Wang, Hadi Jahanshahi, Miao-Kun Wang, Stelios Bekiros, Jinping Liu and Ayman A. Aly
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 610; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050610 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 2400
Abstract
Although most of the early research studies on fractional-order systems were based on the Caputo or Riemann–Liouville fractional-order derivatives, it has recently been proven that these methods have some drawbacks. For instance, kernels of these methods have a singularity that occurs at the [...] Read more.
Although most of the early research studies on fractional-order systems were based on the Caputo or Riemann–Liouville fractional-order derivatives, it has recently been proven that these methods have some drawbacks. For instance, kernels of these methods have a singularity that occurs at the endpoint of an interval of definition. Thus, to overcome this issue, several new definitions of fractional derivatives have been introduced. The Caputo–Fabrizio fractional order is one of these nonsingular definitions. This paper is concerned with the analyses and design of an optimal control strategy for a Caputo–Fabrizio fractional-order model of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The Caputo–Fabrizio fractional-order model of HIV/AIDS is considered to prevent the singularity problem, which is a real concern in the modeling of real-world systems and phenomena. Firstly, in order to find out how the population of each compartment can be controlled, sensitivity analyses were conducted. Based on the sensitivity analyses, the most effective agents in disease transmission and prevalence were selected as control inputs. In this way, a modified Caputo–Fabrizio fractional-order model of the HIV/AIDS epidemic is proposed. By changing the contact rate of susceptible and infectious people, the atraumatic restorative treatment rate of the treated compartment individuals, and the sexual habits of susceptible people, optimal control was designed. Lastly, simulation results that demonstrate the appropriate performance of the Caputo–Fabrizio fractional-order model and proposed control scheme are illustrated. Full article
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17 pages, 1512 KiB  
Article
Cancer Niches and Their Kikuchi Free Energy
by Noor Sajid, Laura Convertino and Karl Friston
Entropy 2021, 23(5), 609; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/e23050609 - 14 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3098
Abstract
Biological forms depend on a progressive specialization of pluripotent stem cells. The differentiation of these cells in their spatial and functional environment defines the organism itself; however, cellular mutations may disrupt the mutual balance between a cell and its niche, where cell proliferation [...] Read more.
Biological forms depend on a progressive specialization of pluripotent stem cells. The differentiation of these cells in their spatial and functional environment defines the organism itself; however, cellular mutations may disrupt the mutual balance between a cell and its niche, where cell proliferation and specialization are released from their autopoietic homeostasis. This induces the construction of cancer niches and maintains their survival. In this paper, we characterise cancer niche construction as a direct consequence of interactions between clusters of cancer and healthy cells. Explicitly, we evaluate these higher-order interactions between niches of cancer and healthy cells using Kikuchi approximations to the free energy. Kikuchi’s free energy is measured in terms of changes to the sum of energies of baseline clusters of cells (or nodes) minus the energies of overcounted cluster intersections (and interactions of interactions, etc.). We posit that these changes in energy node clusters correspond to a long-term reduction in the complexity of the system conducive to cancer niche survival. We validate this formulation through numerical simulations of apoptosis, local cancer growth, and metastasis, and highlight its implications for a computational understanding of the etiopathology of cancer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applying the Free-Energy Principle to Complex Adaptive Systems)
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