Aspergillus flavus Exploits Maize Kernels Using an “Orphan” Secondary Metabolite Cluster
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results & Discussions
2.1. Phenotypic Characterization of A. flavus Mutant Strain
2.2. Colonisation of Maize Kernels by A. flavus AF3357, AFC-1 and Zn2Cys6-OE-GFP
2.3. Expression of Genes Related to the Pathogenesis
2.4. SA and Cathecol Accumulation in Maize-Infected Kernel
2.5. Npp1 Induces Necrotic Cell Death
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Aspergillus flavus Strains
3.2. Generation of Zn2Cys6∆ and Zn2Cys6-OE-GFP Strains
3.3. Zea Mays Crops
3.4. Gene Expression Analysis
3.5. Rutin Degradation
3.6. Salicylic Acid, Catechol, Rutin, Quercetin and Aflatoxin B1 Analysis by HPLC-MS/MS
3.7. Histological Protocol
3.8. Histochemical Assay
3.9. TUNEL Assay
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AF | Aflatoxin |
dai | Day After Inoculation |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
GUS | β-Glucuronidase |
HR | Hypersensitive Response |
PCD | Programmed Cell Death |
PPA | protocatechuoyl-phloroglucinolcarboxylic acid |
ROS | Reactive Oxygen Species |
SA | Salicylic Acid |
SM | Secondary Metabolites |
SMURF | Secondary Metabolite Unknown Regions Finder |
TUNEL | Terminal Deoxynucleotidyl Transferase dUTP Nick end Labeling |
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Strain | Growth Medium | Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|---|
Aspergillus flavus 3357 | Czapek Dox Broth or Agar (CD, Difco) | Wild type | Payne et al. (2007) NRRL [39] |
AFC-1 | Czapek Dox Broth or Agar (CD, Difco) with Uracil 1.122 g/L and 0.26 g/L of Arginine | Mutant (−pyrG, −argD) requires uracil and arginine | Georgianna et al. (2010) [16] |
Zn2Cys6∆ | Czapek Dox Broth or Agar (CD, Difco) with Uracil 1.122 g/L | auxotroph for uracil in which the transcription factor Zn2Cys6 has been deleted; it derives from AFC-1 strain with arginine auxotrophy restored | This study |
Zn2Cys6-OE-GFP | Czapek Dox Broth or Agar (CD, Difco) with Uracil 1.122 g/L | auxotroph for uracil in which the transcription factor Zn2Cys6 is overexpressed; it derives from AFC-1 strain with arginine auxotrophy restored | This study |
nepA-OE-GUS B5-12 | Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA, Difco) | nepA gene over-expressing strain | G.A. Payne (not published) |
nepA∆-GUS B9-5 | Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA, Difco) | nepA gene knock-out strain | G.A. Payne (not published) |
Compound | Precursor Ion | Product Ion | Fragmentor (V) | CE (eV) | Polarity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SA | 137.2 | 92.9, 64.8 | 135 | 20 | [M-H]− |
Catechol | 109.1 | 53.1 | 135 | 20 | [M-H]− |
NAA | 245 | 180.8 | 100 | 16 | [M-H]− |
Quercetin | 303.1 | 152.9 | 100 | 37 | [M-H]+ |
PPA | 291.3 | 129.1, 112.8 | 90 | 38 | [M-H]+ |
Chlorogenic acid | 353.31 | 191.2 | 135 | 10 | [M-H]− |
Rutin | 609.2 | 273.1 | 100 | 56 | [M-H]− |
Aflatoxin B1 | 313.1 | 241.1 | 135 | 38 | [M-H]+ |
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Antiga, L.; La Starza, S.R.; Miccoli, C.; D’Angeli, S.; Scala, V.; Zaccaria, M.; Shu, X.; Obrian, G.; Beccaccioli, M.; Payne, G.A.; et al. Aspergillus flavus Exploits Maize Kernels Using an “Orphan” Secondary Metabolite Cluster. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 8213. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21218213
Antiga L, La Starza SR, Miccoli C, D’Angeli S, Scala V, Zaccaria M, Shu X, Obrian G, Beccaccioli M, Payne GA, et al. Aspergillus flavus Exploits Maize Kernels Using an “Orphan” Secondary Metabolite Cluster. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(21):8213. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21218213
Chicago/Turabian StyleAntiga, Ludovica, Sonia Roberta La Starza, Cecilia Miccoli, Simone D’Angeli, Valeria Scala, Marco Zaccaria, Xiaomei Shu, Gregory Obrian, Marzia Beccaccioli, Gary A. Payne, and et al. 2020. "Aspergillus flavus Exploits Maize Kernels Using an “Orphan” Secondary Metabolite Cluster" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 21: 8213. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms21218213