Current View on the Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Toxicity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Alcohol Intake
3. Metabolization of Ethanol
3.1. Oxidation of Ethanol
3.1.1. Conversion of Ethanol to Ethanal
3.1.2. Conversion of Ethanal to Acetate and Fate of Acetate
3.2. Other Minor Metabolites of Ethanol
- A.
- Fatty acids producing fatty acids ethyl esters (FAEEs) by the action of diverse fatty acid ethyl ester synthases that include a carboxyl ester lipase, also known as a bile salt-activated lipase [80], which is the fate of approximately 0.1% of ingested ethanol. FAEEs persist for at least 24 h even after the ethanol has been eliminated and is no longer detectable. The predominant FAEEs species are ethyl palmitate (E16:0) and ethyl oleate (E18:1), and albumin is their main carrier in blood plasma [79]. FAEEs can also be found in the core of lipoproteins along with other neutral lipids [81].
- B.
- Phospholipids producing phosphatidyl ethanol (PEt) in the process of transphosphatidylation due to the action of membrane-associated phospholipase D2, which involves an exchange of ethanol for the choline of pre-existing phosphatidylcholine [82,83]. Minor metabolites may also serve as promising alcohol consumption biomarkers. Contrary to direct alcohol biomarkers ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate, which can be detected several days after alcohol consumption, phosphatidyl ethanol incorporated into the red blood cell membrane has a half-life up to 28 days after consumption. [84]. High levels of PEt after alcohol intake in the lungs, stomach, spleen, small intestine, large intestine, kidney, liver, and heart have been observed. However, PEt was detected in thymus only after high-dose usage and in skeletal muscle only after high-dose chronic usage. On the contrary, it was not detected in the pancreas and testis at all [85].
4. Toxicity of Ethanol
4.1. General Effects
4.2. Mouth
4.3. Gastrointestinal Tract
4.4. Musculoskeletal System
4.5. Pancreas
4.6. Cardiovascular System
4.7. Brain
4.8. Liver
4.9. Lung
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Class | ADH Subunit | Tissue Expression | Cell Compartment | Substrates |
---|---|---|---|---|
I | ADH1A active in fetal life low in adults | MPES: liver LPES: duodenum, small intestine [30] |
|
|
ADH1B major role in ethanol oxidation | HPES: liver MPES: duodenum, small intestine LPES: cerebellum, oral mucosa, esophagus, stomach, rectum, gallbladder, kidney, urinary bladder, vagina, breast, heart muscle, appendix, tonsils [32] |
| ||
ADH1C major role in ethanol oxidation | HPES: liver MPES: stomach, duodenum, small intestine, rectum, gallbladder, kidney, urinary bladder, epididymis, seminal vesicle, breast, appendix LPES: cerebellum, basal ganglia, hippocampus, colon, testis, vagina, fallopian tube, heart muscle, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, spleen, lymph node, tonsil, bone marrow [34] |
| ||
II | ADH4 | HPES: liver MPES: duodenum LPES: small intestine [36] |
|
|
III | ADH5 ineffective in ethanol oxidation | HPES: liver, kidney, testis, epididymis, smooth muscle MPES: thyroid gland, adrenal gland, nasopharynx, bronchus, lung, oral mucosa, salivary gland, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, small intestine, colon, rectum, gallbladder, pancreas, urinary bladder, seminal vesicle, prostate, vagina, ovary, endometrium, cervix, heart muscle, skin, appendix LPES: cerebral cortex, hippocampus, parathyroid gland, fallopian tube, placenta, breast, tonsil [39] |
|
|
IV | ADH6 contains steroid hormone receptor binding site [41] | MPES: liver, gallbladder, duodenum, small intestine LPES: stomach, rectum, kidney [42] |
| |
V | ADH7 ineffective in ethanol oxidation | HPES: nasopharynx, bronchus, oral mucosa, esophagus MPES: stomach, tonsil LPES: colon [44] |
|
|
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Birková, A.; Hubková, B.; Čižmárová, B.; Bolerázska, B. Current View on the Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Toxicity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 9686. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22189686
Birková A, Hubková B, Čižmárová B, Bolerázska B. Current View on the Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Toxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(18):9686. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22189686
Chicago/Turabian StyleBirková, Anna, Beáta Hubková, Beáta Čižmárová, and Beáta Bolerázska. 2021. "Current View on the Mechanisms of Alcohol-Mediated Toxicity" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 18: 9686. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijms22189686