Affordable Care Act and Disparities in Health Services Utilization among Ethnic Minority Breast Cancer Survivors: Evidence from Longitudinal Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys 2008–2015
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Provisions of the ACA and Breast Cancer Patients
1.1.1. The ACA and Access to Breast Care
1.1.2. The ACA and Preventive Breast Health
1.1.3. The ACA and Continuity of Care for Breast Patients
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Uninsurance and the ACA
3.2. Mammography and the ACA
3.3. Physician Services Utilization and the ACA
3.4. Prescription Drug Expenditures and the ACA
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variables | Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanics |
---|---|---|---|
(Insurance Coverage) | (Insurance Coverage) | (Insurance Coverage) | |
Time (1 after ACA, 0 otherwise) | 0.772 | 4.855 * | 2.720 ** |
(0.349) | (3.956) | (1.323) | |
Survivor’s age | 2.016 *** | 1.621 | 2.779 *** |
(0.403) | (0.712) | (1.096) | |
Census regions (Northeast) | |||
Midwest | 0.243 | 1.610 *** | 0.828 |
(0.273) | (0.288) | (1.282) | |
South | 0.127 * | 2.720 ** | 0.247 |
(0.137) | (1.32) | (0.278) | |
West | 0.120 * | 0.130 *** | 0.216 *** |
(0.134) | (0.1032) | (0.074) | |
Marital status (Married) | |||
Widowed/divorced | 1.150 | 0.962 | 1.545 |
(0.551) | (1.078) | (1.234) | |
Never married | 0.357 | 2.968 | 2.504 |
(0.241) | (4.273) | (2.959) | |
Educational level (GED and HS) | |||
Bachelor | 3.621 ** | 1.545 | 0.997 |
(2.009) | (0.655) | (0.893) | |
Graduate | 2.187 | 2.405 | 0.102 *** |
(1.472) | (1.550) | (0.0605) | |
Health status (Excellent/very good) | |||
Good/fair | 0.851 | 0.898 | 2.550 |
(0.379) | (0.901) | (2.214) | |
Poor | 2.192 | 0.789 | 0.441 |
(2.480) | (1.288) | (0.593) | |
Number of priority conditions | 1.096 | 1.201 | 1.417 |
(0.192) | (0.434) | (0.558) | |
Family income as % FPL (low income) | |||
Middle income | 0.525 | 0.732 | 0.119 *** |
(0.278) | (0.749) | (0.084) | |
High income | 1.690 | 0.3152 *** | 2.215 |
(1.053) | (0.066) | (2.844) | |
Employment status | 0.672 | 0.596 | 2.281 |
(0.332) | (0.576) | (2.050) | |
Constant | 2.407 | 0.255 | 0.0249 |
(4.115) | (0.747) | (0.0599) | |
Observations | 926 | 389 | 298 |
LR | 48.67 *** | 22.60 *** | 12.18 *** |
Appendix B
Variables | Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanics |
---|---|---|---|
(Mammography) | (Mammography) | (Mammography) | |
Time (1 after ACA, 0 otherwise) | 1.909 ** | 1.307 ** | 0.318 ** |
(0.553) | (0.588) | (0.160) | |
Age of survivors | 1.038 | 1.006 | 1.470 |
(0.149) | (0.280) | (0.780) | |
Census regions (Northeast) | |||
Midwest | 0.390 * | 0.387 | 0.181 |
(0.199) | (0.500) | (0.709) | |
South | 0.584 | 0.120 *** | 3.883 ** |
(0.293) | (0.0834) | (1.95) | |
West | 0.312 ** | 1.501 * | 1.897 |
(0.160) | (0.337) | (5.051) | |
MSA (non-MSA) | 0.933 | 0.643 | 0.308 |
(0.335) | (0.724) | (0.495) | |
Marital status (Married) | |||
Widowed/divorced | 0.813 | 0.243 | 4.989 |
(0.258) | (0.216) | (7.779) | |
Never married | 0.399 | 0.828 | 0.425 |
(0.246) | (1.084) | (0.553) | |
Educational level (GED and HS) | |||
Bachelor | 0.473 ** | 0.918 | 1.475 |
(0.160) | (0.396) | (2.538) | |
Graduate | 3.023 * | 2.113 * | 0.628 |
(1.911) | (0.904) | (1.009) | |
Number of priority conditions | 0.942 | 1.372 | 0.329 * |
(0.0942) | (0.344) | (0.196) | |
Family income as % FPL (low income) | |||
Middle income | 0.882 | 1.053 | 0.0342 ** |
(0.320) | (0.842) | (0.0142) | |
High income | 0.911 | 0.476 | 2.324 |
(0.342) | (0.426) | (1.317) | |
Employment status | 2.056 * | 1.282 * | 0.794 |
(0.817) | (0.684) | (1.227) | |
Constant | 13.20 ** | 47.28 | 199.1 |
(15.55) | (117.3) | (795.4) | |
Observations | 593 | 194 | 79 |
LR | 15.66 *** | 11.12 ** | 10.06 ** |
Appendix C
Variables | (Office-Based Physician Visits) | (Office-Based Physician Visits) | (Office-Based Physician Visits) |
---|---|---|---|
Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanic | |
ACA (Time dummy) | −1.329 * | 0.987 | −1.910 |
(0.689) | (1.302) | (2.500) | |
Survivor’s age | −0.102 | −1.097 * | −1.109 |
(0.292) | (0.581) | (0.833) | |
Census regions (Northeast) | |||
Midwest | −0.0366 | −0.917 | −4.556 ** |
(0.825) | (2.191) | (1.980) | |
South | −0.138 | −1.528 | 1.765 |
(0.798) | (1.936) | (2.094) | |
West | −0.715 | −0.286 | 1.493 |
(0.807) | (2.301) | (2.400) | |
Marital status (Married) | |||
Widowed/divorced | −6.452 *** | 0.248 | −0.757 |
(2.348) | (1.106) | (1.775) | |
Never married | −3.551 ** | 2.614 | 2.409 |
(0.780) | (2.312) | (3.091) | |
Educational level (GED and HS) | |||
Bachelor | 2.173 *** | 2.455 *** | 0.852 |
(0.790) | (0.621) | (2.188) | |
Graduate | 2.370 *** | 3.767 *** | −0.820 |
(0.882) | (1.351) | (2.821) | |
Number of priority conditions | 0.998 *** | 0.461 | −0.164 |
Family income as % FPL(low income) | (0.218) | (0.384) | (1.048) |
Middle income | −0.803 | −0.394 | −0.544 |
(0.852) | (1.559) | (1.810) | |
High income | −0.715 | −0.367 | 4.401 |
(0.823) | (1.513) | (2.767) | |
Constant | 7.452 *** | 11.71 *** | 12.10 ** |
(2.241) | (3.742) | (5.534) | |
Observations | 857 | 271 | 153 |
R-squared | 0.075 | 0.111 | 0.130 |
RSS | 62,960 | 20,034 | 14,865 |
MSS | 5108 | 2513 | 2223 |
RMSS | 8.657 | 8.881 | 10.45 |
F-statistics | 13.904 *** | 11.426 *** | 8.331 ** |
Number of clusters | 857 | 271 | 153 |
Appendix D
Variables | Non-Hispanic White | (Non-Hispanic Black) | (Hispanics) |
---|---|---|---|
Prescription Drug Expenditure | Prescription Drug Expenditure | Prescription Drug Expenditure | |
Time (1 after ACA, 0 before) | 73.55 | −1784 * | −705.3 |
(341.6) | (1025) | (1409) | |
Survivor age | −358.1 | −72.83 | −1079 |
(253.7) | (157.0) | (891.9) | |
Census regions (Northeeast †) | |||
Midwest | −112.8 | −1784 * | −705.3 |
(514.5) | (1025) | (1409) | |
South | 164.0 | −1351 | −2042 |
(568.8) | (1122) | (1242) | |
West | −432.6 | −900.0 | 4474 |
(445.7) | (1026) | (5323) | |
Marital status (Married †) | |||
Widow/divorced | 51.57 | −1886 | −740.7 |
(386.5) | (1232) | (1710) | |
Never married | −1095 | −3064 | 995 |
(1097) | (2727) | (1097) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | |||
Bachelor | −62.62 | −647.6 | 4566 |
(376.1) | (665.0) | (4985) | |
Graduate | −57.57 | −868.9 | −4542 |
(491.0) | (1030) | (2914) | |
Number of priority conditions | 1084 *** | 538.2 ** | 1291 ** |
(270.0) | (210.6) | (541.8) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | |||
Middle income | 561.2 | −1319 | −6349 |
(461.7) | (907.0) | (7642) | |
High income | 304.4 | −1176 | −6881 |
(381.7) | (777.0) | (8409) | |
Constant | 2951 ** | 4959 ** | 9988 |
(1365) | (2416) | (6932) | |
Observations | 941 | 303 | 174 |
R-squared | 0.074 | 0.077 | 0.057 |
RSS | 2.900 × 1010 | 4.940 × 109 | 4.370 × 1010 |
MSS | 2.300 × 109 | 4.140 × 108 | 2.640 × 109 |
RMSE | 5591 | 4126 | 16,471 |
F-statistics | 5.233 ** | 1.534 | 1.155 |
Number of clusters | 941 | 303 | 174 |
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Pre-ACA | Post-ACA | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-Hispanic White (%) | Non-Hispanic Black (%) | Hispanics (%) | Non-Hispanic White (%) | Non-Hispanic Black (%) | Hispanics (%) | |
Survivor’s age | 66.45 (12.87) a | 60.15 (13.04) | 57.64 (15.16) | 67.15686 (12.38468) | 62.673 (12.74) | 59.64 (14.30) |
Doctor’s visit | 9.55 (9.88) | 6.80 (7.93) | 10.6 (13.98) | |||
OOP prescription Expenditure | 2936 (3303) | 2110 (2893) | 3620 (6320) | 2902.5 (6725) | 2554 (4790) | 3999 (19,678) |
Number of priority conditions | 1.82 (1.54) | 1.77 (1.43) | 1.64 (1.67) | 1.78 (1.482) | 2.33 (1.58) | 1.51 (1.150) |
Mammography within 2 years | ||||||
No | 20.88 | 15.00 | 7.14 | 14.67 | 12.08 | 14.05 |
Yes | 79.12 | 85.00 | 92.86 | 85.33 | 87.92 | 85.95 |
Health insurance | ||||||
Private insurance | 63.60 | 47.13 | 33.33 | 65.61 | 54.84 | 45.74 |
Public insurance | 32.51 | 45.98 | 53.33 | 31.37 | 43.78 | 48.84 |
Uninsured | 3.89 | 6.90 | 13.33 | 3.02 | 1.38 | 5.43 |
Census regions | ||||||
Northeast | 18.73 | 18.39 | 20.00 | 16.44 | 14.29 | 24.81 |
Midwest | 24.03 | 17.24 | 4.44 | 27.00 | 15.21 | 7.75 |
South | 35.69 | 52.87 | 35.56 | 36.20 | 60.37 | 31.78 |
West | 21.55 | 11.49 | 40.00 | 20.36 | 10.14 | 35.66 |
Marital status | ||||||
Married | 56.54 | 29.89 | 42.22 | 52.34 | 29.95 | 48.84 |
Widowed/Divorced | 39.58 | 49.43 | 40.00 | 41.48 | 55.76 | 43.41 |
Never married | 3.89 | 20.69 | 17.78 | 6.18 | 14.29 | 7.75 |
Education | ||||||
HS and GED | 66.78 | 71.26 | 80.00 | 50.23 | 60.83 | 67.44 |
Bachelor | 16.96 | 16.09 | 15.56 | 35.75 | 29.49 | 27.13 |
Graduate | 16.25 | 12.64 | 4.44 | 14.03 | 9.68 | 5.43 |
Health status | ||||||
Excellent/very good | 42.65 | 26.74 | 22.22 | 47.09 | 29.30 | 26.98 |
Good/fair | 50.90 | 63.95 | 68.89 | 46.32 | 57.67 | 64.29 |
Poor | 6.45 | 9.30 | 8.89 | 6.60 | 13.02 | 8.73 |
Family income | ||||||
Low income | 25.80 | 45.98 | 44.44 | 32.43 | 45.16 | 53.49 |
Middle income | 31.10 | 26.44 | 44.44 | 26.40 | 32.72 | 24.81 |
High income | 43.11 | 27.59 | 11.11 | 41.18 | 22.12 | 21.71 |
Employment status | ||||||
Unemployed | 62.41 | 54.02 | 66.67 | 65.20 | 63.89 | 58.14 |
Employed | 37.59 | 45.98 | 33.33 | 34.80 | 36.11 | 41.86 |
MSA | 80.21 | 22.06 | 100.00 | 79.59 | 90.08 | 96.43 |
Non-MSA | 19.79 | 15.15 | 0.0 | 20.41 | 9.92 | 3.57 |
Number of observations | 283 | 87 | 45 | 663 | 217 | 129 |
Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public Insurance | Uninsured | Public Insurance | Uninsured | Public Insurance | Uninsured | |
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) |
Sub period A a | 0.881 | 1.329 | 0.509 * | 0.0252 ** | 0.361 * | 0.372 *** |
(0.168) | (0.628) | (0.194) | (0.0374) | (0.199) | (0.150) | |
Survivor’s age | 1.522 *** | 0.496 *** | 1.425 ** | 1.034 | 1.452 * | 0.439 ** |
(0.138) | (0.0822) | (0.241) | (0.351) | (0.322) | (0.166) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | ||||||
Midwest | 1.064 | 4.847 | 2.303 | 4.72 × 10−7 *** | 0.163 | 0.404 |
(0.300) | (5.731) | (1.413) | (7.15 × 10−7) | (0.245) | (0.584) | |
South | 1.003 | 6.386 | 1.248 | 2.317 | 0.775 | 1.904 |
(0.262) | (7.361) | (0.661) | (2.810) | (0.536) | (1.941) | |
West | 0.948 | 5.164 | 0.305 | 1.54 × 10−7 *** | 0.175 ** | 0.895 |
(0.286) | (6.117) | (0.231) | (1.82 × 10−7) | (0.138) | (0.750) | |
Marital status (Married †) | ||||||
Widow/divorced | 1.582 ** | 1.161 | 2.158 * | 0.279 | 5.620 *** | 1.509 |
(0.314) | (0.575) | (0.906) | (0.360) | (3.347) | (1.393) | |
Never married | 2.856 *** | 8.374 *** | 2.173 | 0.163 | 1.501 | 0.364 |
(1.124) | (6.480) | (1.127) | (0.208) | (1.025) | (0.460) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | ||||||
Bachelor | 0.967 | 0.256 ** | 0.355 ** | 1.25 × 10−7 *** | 0.746 | 1.030 |
(0.218) | (0.159) | (0.166) | (1.43 × 10−7) | (0.499) | (0.951) | |
Graduate | 0.711 | 0.453 | 0.933 | 3.79 × 10−7 *** | 0.0682 | 0.908 |
(0.224) | (0.329) | (0.523) | (5.36 × 10−7) | (0.120) | (1.329) | |
Health status (Excellent/very good †) | ||||||
Good/fair | 0.902 | 1.160 | 1.505 | 0.444 | 1.205 | 0.322 |
(0.181) | (0.637) | (0.672) | (0.527) | (0.810) | (0.277) | |
Poor | 1.368 | 9.90 × 10−7 *** | 4.948 ** | 3.286 | 3.901 | 1.299 |
(0.511) | (8.73 × 10−7) | (3.382) | (7.547) | (6.689) | (2.062) | |
Number of priority conditions | 1.175 ** | 0.817 | 1.371 ** | 1.029 | 1.029 | 0.969 |
(0.0814) | (0.167) | (0.190) | (0.523) | (0.244) | (0.335) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | ||||||
Middle income | 0.447 *** | 2.803 * | 0.218 *** | 0.183 * | 0.116 *** | 1.064 |
(0.1000) | (1.614) | (0.0841) | (0.175) | (0.0680) | (0.840) | |
High income | 0.264 *** | 0.717 | 0.0471 *** | 3.53 × 10−8 *** | 0.132 *** | 0.214 |
(0.0620) | (0.474) | (0.0265) | (4.52 × 10−8) | (0.0966) | (0.212) | |
Constant | 0.0379 *** | 0.713 | 0.0911 ** | 2.732 | 0.722 | 67.20 * |
(0.0256) | (1.096) | (0.110) | (8.586) | (1.082) | (149.1) | |
Observations | 699 | 699 | 241 | 241 | 123 | 123 |
WaldTest | 623 *** | 623 *** | 342 *** | 342 *** | 199 *** | 199 *** |
5.45 | 5.45 | 3.75 | 3.75 | 2.03 | 2.03 | |
(2.13) | (2.13) | (1.19) | (1.19) | (0.45) | (0.45) | |
0.854 | 0.854 | 0.572 | 0.572 | 0.113 | 0.113 | |
WaldTest | 791 *** | 791 *** | 515 *** | 515 *** | 211 *** | 211 *** |
Non-Hispanic White | Non-Hispanic Black | Hispanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public Insurance | Uninsured | Public Insurance | Uninsured | Public Insurance | Uninsured | |
Variables | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) |
Sub period B a | 0.837 | 0.633 *** | 0.270 *** | 0.315 * | 0.259 ** | 0.0496 ** |
(0.215) | (0.0840) | (0.0829) | (0.210) | (0.169) | (0.0671) | |
Survivor’s age | 1.668 *** | 0.667 ** | 2.454 *** | 0.680 | 3.036 *** | 0.468 |
(0.180) | (0.132) | (0.777) | (0.309) | (1.223) | (0.255) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | ||||||
Midwest | 1.024 | 2.660 × 106 *** | 0.401 | 2.75 × 10−8 *** | 0.000169 *** | 7.257 |
(0.346) | (1.755 × 106) | (0.418) | (4.35 × 10−8) | (0.000337) | (18.10) | |
South | 0.635 | 3.036 × 106 *** | 0.170 * | 0.402 | 0.0571 ** | 0.404 |
(0.200) | (2.115 × 106) | (0.169) | (0.514) | (0.0639) | (0.819) | |
West | 0.996 | 3.944 × 106 *** | 0.0590 ** | 1.46 × 10−8 *** | 0.00863 *** | 0.0348 ** |
(0.345) | (3.069 × 106) | (0.0731) | (1.81 × 10−8) | (0.00954) | (0.0516) | |
Marital status (Married †) | ||||||
Widow/divorced | 1.715 ** | 1.461 | 1.672 | 0.868 | 17.53 *** | 3.795 |
(0.408) | (1.007) | (0.979) | (1.467) | (16.42) | (4.128) | |
Never married | 2.039 | 8.587 ** | 10.36 *** | 0.851 | 17.33 | 6.008 |
(1.138) | (8.374) | (7.517) | (1.291) | (31.70) | (10.23) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | ||||||
Bachelor | 0.534 ** | 0.562 | 0.194 *** | 2.07 × 10−8 *** | 3.413 | 1.429 |
(0.157) | (0.414) | (0.107) | (1.66 × 10−8) | (4.151) | (2.661) | |
Graduate | 0.484 * | 0.864 | 0.631 | 5.21 × 10−8 *** | 0 *** | 2.917 |
(0.180) | (0.800) | (0.519) | (7.47 × 10−8) | (0) | (6.339) | |
Health status (Excellent/very good †) | ||||||
Good/fair | 1.158 | 1.275 | 2.089 | 0.401 | 110.8 *** | 0.733 |
(0.285) | (0.855) | (1.409) | (0.520) | (145.9) | (0.907) | |
Poor | 1.104 | 2.149 | 2.647 | 2.49 × 10−8 *** | 2.270 × 108 *** | 1.439 × 109 *** |
(0.537) | (2.540) | (2.768) | (4.62 × 10−8) | (2.823 × 108) | (2.863 × 109) | |
Number of priority conditions | 1.142 * | 1.076 | 1.278 | 1.118 | 0.601 | 0.182 |
(0.0922) | (0.255) | (0.191) | (0.366) | (0.212) | (0.234) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | ||||||
Middle income | 0.325 *** | 2.905 | 0.163 *** | 0.481 | 0.0265 *** | 6.017 |
(0.0968) | (2.595) | (0.106) | (0.715) | (0.0273) | (8.495) | |
High income | 0.237 *** | 0.534 | 0.0552 *** | 1.14 × 10−8 *** | 0.0340 ** | 3.65 × 10−6 *** |
(0.0691) | (0.564) | (0.0447) | (1.60 × 10−8) | (0.0492) | (5.48 × 10−6) | |
Constant | 0.0291 *** | 1.17 × 10−7 *** | 0.0171 ** | 42.37 | 0.00975 ** | 30.62 |
(0.0235) | (1.91 × 10−7) | (0.0332) | (139.9) | (0.0223) | (78.58) | |
Observations | 507 | 507 | 145 | 145 | 93 | 93 |
Wald Test | 421 *** | 421 *** | 273 *** | 273 *** | 201 *** | 201 *** |
3.77 | 3.77 | 2.98 | 2.98 | 3.82 | 3.82 | |
(2.01) | (2.01) | (0.98) | (0.98) | (0.33) | (0.33) | |
0.616 | 0.616 | 0.411 | 0.411 | 0.102 | 0.102 | |
Wald Test | 631 *** | 631 *** | 411 *** | 411 *** | 111 *** | 111 *** |
Pre-ACA and Sub-Period A Sample | Pre-ACA and Sub-Period B Sample | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | (Hispanic) | (Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | Hispanic | |
Variables | Mammography (1) | Mammography (2) | Mammography (3) | Mammography (4) | Mammography (5) | Mammography (6) |
ACA periods (Time dummies) | ||||||
Sub period A a | 3.093 * | 1.107 *** | 0.00219 | ---- | --- | --- |
(1.882) | (0.399) | (0.0137) | --- | --- | --- | |
Sub Period B b | --- | --- | --- | 1.486 ** | 1.255 ** | 0.870 * |
--- | --- | --- | (0.647) | (0.533) | (0.489) | |
Survivor’s age | 1.059 | 0.054 ** | 3.112 | 1.066 | 1.167 | 1.486 ** |
(0.262) | (0.025) | (4.584) | (0.356) | (1.823) | (0.647) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | ||||||
Midwest | 0.190 * | 0.204 * | 0.729 ** | 0.433 | 0.510 | 0.315 * |
(0.191) | (0.121) | (0.365) | (0.561) | (0.612) | (0.210) | |
South | 0.391 | 0.108 | 2.600 | 0.255 | 1.464 * | 0.669 |
(0.346) | (0.240) | (10.10) | (0.343) | (0.822) | (0.463) | |
West | 0.126 * | 0.698 | 2.508 | 0.0758 | 0.0833 | 0.633 *** |
(0.137) | (1.601) | (11.42) | (0.134) | (0.712) | (0.0840) | |
MSA (non-MSA †) | 0.851 | 0.847 * | 2.876 ** | 1.046 | 0.229 | |
(0.525) | (0.528) | (1.239) | (0.891) | (0.407) | ||
Marital status (Married †) | ||||||
Widow/divorced | 0.676 | 0.042 * | 38.70 | 1.059 | 0.00325 | 1.021 |
(0.380) | (0.023) | (174.9) | (0.793) | (0.0195) | (0.0203) | |
Never married | 0.210 | 0.762 | 0.809 * | 0.132 | 0.00748 | 1.020 |
(0.251) | (1.518) | (0.450) | (0.254) | (0.0446) | (0.355) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | ||||||
Bachelor | 0.243 * | 1.290 | 3.268 ** | 0.195 | 0.0295 | 0.715 |
(0.182) | (1.817) | (1.512) | (0.242) | (0.136) | (0.270) | |
Graduate | 5.863 | 3.159 | 0.406 | 2.782 *** | 0.333 ** | 0.834 |
(6.641) | (6.403) | (1.408) | (1.074) | (0.153) | (0.536) | |
Number of priority conditions | 0.893 | 1.665 | 0.0707 | 1.205 | 47.76 | 0.715 |
(0.159) | (0.844) | (0.177) | (0.325) | (167.5) | (0.270) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | ||||||
Middle income | 0.893 | 1.090 | 0.00319 | 0.091 * | 0.059 * | 0.005 |
(0.552) | (1.399) | (0.0196) | (0.058) | (0.032) | (0.081) | |
High income | 0.941 | 0.059 * | 0.00663 | 0.315 * | 0.042 * | 0.034 |
(0.608) | (0.032) | (0.0359) | (0.210) | (0.023) | (1.336) | |
Employment (binary) | 3.409 | 4.595 *** | 0.684 | 6.704 | 1.138 * | 0.715 |
(2.677) | (2.545) | (2.321) | (9.133) | (0.0799) | (0.167) | |
Constant | 136.2 * | 114.17 ** | 77.026 *** | 56.93 *** | 20.16 | 13.17 |
(342.3) | (28) | (84) | (14.3) | (16.8) | (6.02) | |
Observations | 593 | 194 | 149 | 372 | 104 | 54 |
6.921 *** | 2.022 ** | 1.348 | 3.048 *** | 1.395 | 1.876 * | |
0.688 ** | 0.682 *** | 0.815 ** | 0.688 * | 0.805 ** | 0.469 * | |
2.695 | 2.657 | 3.811 | 2.695 | 3.682 | 4.657 |
Pre-ACA and Sub-Period A Sample | Pre-ACA and Sub-Period B Sample | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | (Hispanic) | (Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | Hispanic | |
Variables | Mammography (1) | Mammography (2) | Mammography (3) | Mammography (4) | Mammography (5) | Mammography (6) |
ACA periods (Time dummies) | ||||||
Sub period A a | 0.822 | 0.676 | 1.738 | --- | --- | --- |
(0.105) | (0.237) | (0.662) | ||||
Sub Period B b | --- | --- | --- | 1.121 | 2.112 | 7.20 ** |
(0.243) | (1.164) | (4.83) | ||||
Breast cancer | 1.139 | 2.223 | 14.57 ** | 1.121 | 2.112 | 17.20 ** |
(0.242) | (1.138) | (15.79) | (0.243) | (1.164) | (19.83) | |
Period A x breast cancer | 2.091 ** | 2.541 *** | 0.107 * | --- | --- | --- |
(0.645) | (0.857) | (0.135) | 1.138 * | 1.023 ** | 0.954 | |
Period B x breast cancer | --- | --- | --- | (0.0799) | (0.0114) | (0.0926) |
Survivor’s age | 1.502 *** | 1.562 *** | 2.062 *** | 1.681 *** | 2.448 *** | 1.102 *** |
(0.0711) | (0.214) | (0.352) | (0.118) | (0.618) | (0.0302) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | ||||||
Midwest | 0.651 ** | 0.876 | 2.135 | 0.919 | 0.710 | 3.251 |
(0.134) | (0.502) | (1.468) | (0.274) | (0.700) | (3.705) | |
South | 0.653 ** | 0.514 | 0.787 | 0.897 | 0.369 | 0.356 |
(0.130) | (0.246) | (0.419) | (0.256) | (0.317) | (0.346) | |
West | 0.532 *** | 0.369 | 1.065 | 0.586 * | 0.356 | 1.345 |
(0.111) | (0.231) | (0.557) | (0.174) | (0.377) | (1.231) | |
MSA (non-MSA †) | 0.984 | 1.039 | 3.898 *** | 1.046 | 0.488 | 17.91 *** |
(0.142) | (0.481) | (1.980) | (0.227) | (0.411) | (16.57) | |
Marital status (Married †) | ||||||
Widow/divorced | 0.656 *** | 0.735 | 0.355 ** | 0.589 *** | 1.080 | 0.231 ** |
(0.0850) | (0.283) | (0.144) | (0.113) | (0.610) | (0.157) | |
Never married | 0.587 ** | 0.872 | 0.264 *** | 0.672 | 2.076 | 0.257 * |
(0.141) | (0.399) | (0.132) | (0.269) | (1.488) | (0.208) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | ||||||
Bachelor | 1.482 ** | 1.396 | 1.908 | 1.478 | 0.611 | 2.622 |
(0.235) | (0.623) | (1.157) | (0.376) | (0.494) | (3.403) | |
Graduate | 1.998 *** | 1.388 | 1.914 | 3.073 *** | 0.976 | 0.951 |
(0.382) | (0.743) | (1.624) | (0.978) | (0.848) | (1.322) | |
Number of priority conditions | 1.031 | 0.967 | 1.485 ** | 1.031 | 1.042 | 1.550 * |
(0.0431) | (0.0995) | (0.240) | (0.0637) | (0.197) | (0.396) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | ||||||
Middle income | 1.413 ** | 1.253 | 0.897 | 1.231 | 0.931 | 0.442 |
(0.198) | (0.462) | (0.381) | (0.261) | (0.577) | (0.317) | |
High income | 2.265 *** | 1.489 | 1.598 | 1.699 ** | 0.721 | 4.430 |
(0.373) | (0.770) | (1.063) | (0.402) | (0.550) | (5.220) | |
Employment (Binary) | 1.567 *** | 1.093 | 1.188 | 1.876 *** | 3.436 ** | 0.961 |
(0.231) | (0.396) | (0.488) | (0.402) | (2.071) | (0.613) | |
Constant | 0.369 *** | 0.649 | 0.0222 *** | 0.152 *** | 0.0732 | 0.00277 *** |
(0.136) | (0.706) | (0.0256) | (0.0821) | (0.130) | (0.00556) | |
Observations | 2402 | 424 | 344 | 1138 | 186 | 161 |
197.6 *** | 35.50 *** | 59.26 *** | 100.5 *** | 23.20 *** | 31.19 *** | |
9.22 ** | 2.01 * | 2.78 ** | 2.14 * | 3.92 *** | 9.01 *** | |
0.00551 | 0.00257 | 0.00302 | 0.00839 | 0.00359 | 0.000544 |
Pre-ACA and Sub-Period A Sample | Pre-ACA and Sub-Period B Sample | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | (Hispanic) | (Non-Hispanic White) | (Non-Hispanic Black) | Hispanic | |
Variables | Physician Visits (1) | Physician Visits (2) | Physician Visits (3) | Physician Visits (4) | Physician Visits (5) | Physician Visits (6) |
ACA periods (Time dummies) | ||||||
Sub period A a | –0.201 *** | –1.368 *** | –0.403 * | --- | --- | --- |
(0.0739) | (0.455) | (0.228) | ||||
Sub Period B b | --- | --- | --- | −0.111 | 1.814 ** | 0.0302 |
(0.0815) | (0.769) | (0.237) | ||||
Survivor’s age | –0.0568 | –0.130 ** | –0.200 *** | −0.00735 | –0.0658 | –0.0941 |
(0.0350) | (0.0568) | (0.0739) | (0.0367) | (0.0698) | (0.108) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | ||||||
Midwest | –0.113 | –0.139 | –0.238 | –0.00516 | 1.299 *** | 0.603 |
(0.105) | (0.260) | (0.335) | (0.119) | (0.314) | (0.367) | |
South | –0.183 * | –0.220 | 1.354 *** | −0.0503 | 2.073 *** | 0.524 |
(0.101) | (0.206) | (0.412) | (0.107) | (0.740) | (0.542) | |
West | –0.209 * | (0.409) | 0.595 ** | –0.320 *** | –0.132 | 0.454 *** |
(0.111) | 0.166 | (0.303) | (0.104) | (0.237) | (0.148) | |
Marital status (Married †) | ||||||
Widow/divorced | –0.0970 | (0.325) | 1.613 *** | 0.0316 | –0.191 | 0.612 *** |
(0.0801) | –0.372 | (0.261) | (0.0885) | (0.281) | (0.178) | |
Never married | 0.0278 | 0.112 | –0.287 ** | 0.314 | –0.280 | 0.871 *** |
(0.168) | (0.147) | (0.143) | (0.300) | (0.287) | (0.264) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | ||||||
Bachelor | 0.0314 | 0.0905 | 0.408 | 0.0227 | 1.023 | –0.326 ** |
(0.0954) | (0.185) | (0.381) | (0.107) | (1.170) | (0.140) | |
Graduate | 0.374 | –0.250 ** | 1.023 | –0.326 ** | –0.0555 | –0.186 |
(0.662) | (0.108) | (1.170) | (0.140) | (1.867) | (0.147) | |
Number of priority condition | 0.157 *** | 0.124 ** | 0.0401 | 0.156 *** | 0.0715 | 0.0182 |
(0.0257) | (0.0506) | (0.0831) | (0.0279) | (0.0570) | (0.117) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | ||||||
Middle income | 0.0738 | –0.0949 | –0.424 | 0.528 | 0.00200 | –0.365 |
(0.290) | (0.140) | (0.266) | (0.604) | (0.201) | (0.415) | |
High income | 0.00329 | –0.180 | –0.481 * | –0.0138 | –0.187 | –0.250 ** |
(0.0948) | (0.165) | (0.263) | (0.112) | (0.206) | (0.108) | |
Constant | 2.243 *** | 2.424 *** | 3.598 *** | 1.774 *** | 2.157 *** | 0.360 |
(0.269) | (0.408) | (0.601) | (0.292) | (0.484) | (1.271) | |
Observations | 653 | 221 | 111 | 480 | 133 | 82 |
Log-Likelihood value | –2035 | –665.9 | –349.5 | –1521 | –390.6 | –264.1 |
56.53 *** | 14.06 *** | 29.29 *** | 42.11 *** | 5.330 *** | 25.34 *** | |
Vuong-Test | 2.098 | 3.462 | –0.0109 | 1.939 | −0.434 | 0.633 |
0.814 | 0.772 | 0.831 | 0.767 | 0.772 | 0.879 |
Non-Hispanic White | (Non-Hispanic Black) | (Hispanics) | |
---|---|---|---|
Variables | Prescription Drug Expenditure | Prescription Drug Expenditure | Prescription Drug Expenditure |
Time (1 after ACA, 0 before) | –0.949 * | –0.878 ** | –0.946 * |
(0.490) | (0.399) | (0.510) | |
Age (divide by 10) | 0.386 ** | 0.203 | –0.733 |
(0.195) | (0.322) | (0.550) | |
Census regions (Northeast †) | |||
Midwest | 0.604 ** | –0.679 | –2.259 |
(0.279) | (1.341) | (1.506) | |
South | –0.452 | –1.099 | –0.720 |
(0.299) | (1.075) | (0.963) | |
West | 0.0512 | –2.928 * | –2.696 *** |
(0.716) | (1.492) | (0.934) | |
Marital status (Married †) | |||
Widow/divorced | –0.487 | 0.560 ** | –0.241 |
(0.483) | (0.255) | (0.762) | |
Never married | 0.0433 | 1.016 *** | 0.744 |
(0.989) | (0.249) | (1.235) | |
Education (HS & GED †) | |||
Bachelor | –0.263 | 0.0785 | –0.666 |
(0.528) | (0.906) | (0.879) | |
Graduate | 0.0911 | –0.600 | –4.598 *** |
(0.678) | (1.285) | (1.669) | |
Npriority | 1.985 *** | 1.383 *** | 1.182 *** |
(0.159) | (0.256) | (0.313) | |
Family income as % FP line (Low income †) | |||
Middle income | –0.660 | –0.274 | –0.688 |
(0.583) | (0.907) | (0.824) | |
High income | –0.0468 | 1.075 | –0.784 |
(0.571) | (1.048) | (0.994) | |
Constant | 9.926 *** | 10.16 *** | 9.423 *** |
(1.483) | (2.237) | (1.777) | |
Observations | 941 | 303 | 174 |
R2 | 0.187 | 0.124 | 0.218 |
RSS | 41,584 | 11,837 | 3297 |
MSS | 9580 | 1673 | 918.8 |
RMSE | 6.694 | 6.389 | 4.526 |
F-Statistics | 17.82 | 3.415 | 3.739 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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White-Means, S.I.; Osmani, A.R. Affordable Care Act and Disparities in Health Services Utilization among Ethnic Minority Breast Cancer Survivors: Evidence from Longitudinal Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys 2008–2015. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1860. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph15091860
White-Means SI, Osmani AR. Affordable Care Act and Disparities in Health Services Utilization among Ethnic Minority Breast Cancer Survivors: Evidence from Longitudinal Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys 2008–2015. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(9):1860. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph15091860
Chicago/Turabian StyleWhite-Means, Shelley I., and Ahmad Reshad Osmani. 2018. "Affordable Care Act and Disparities in Health Services Utilization among Ethnic Minority Breast Cancer Survivors: Evidence from Longitudinal Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys 2008–2015" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 9: 1860. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph15091860