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Energies, Volume 14, Issue 10 (May-2 2021) – 241 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The constant growth of electricity demand, the depleting resources of fossil fuels, and the advancing globalisation and climate change problem make renewable energy the fastest developing branch of energy supply. With wind turbines increasing in size, installed at greater distances from the mainland, and greater depths, submarine cables are facing new challenges. Depending on the application, various types and specific designs of the submarine cables are required. The designs need to predict all environmental aspects, production capabilities and installation conditions. The radial water barrier, which is a crucial part of the cable design, is very relevant, especially in new dynamic cables. Lead, aluminium, and copper, which are commonly used nowadays, are becoming obsolete and not applicable to new, state-of-the-art cable designs. View this paper.
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17 pages, 2451 KiB  
Article
Effect of Stratification of Cathode Catalyst Layers on Durability of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
by Zikhona Nondudule, Jessica Chamier and Mahabubur Chowdhury
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2975; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102975 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2664
Abstract
To decrease the cost of fuel cell manufacturing, the amount of platinum (Pt) in the catalyst layer needs to be reduced. In this study, ionomer gradient membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) were designed to reduce Pt loading without sacrificing performance and lifetime. A two-layer [...] Read more.
To decrease the cost of fuel cell manufacturing, the amount of platinum (Pt) in the catalyst layer needs to be reduced. In this study, ionomer gradient membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) were designed to reduce Pt loading without sacrificing performance and lifetime. A two-layer stratification of the cathode was achieved with varying ratios of 28 wt. % ionomer in the inner layer, on the membrane, and 24 wt. % on the outer layer, coated onto the inner layer. To study the MEA performance, the electrochemical surface area (ECSA), polarization curves, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) responses were evaluated under 20, 60, and 100% relative humidity (RH). The stratified MEA Pt loading was reduced by 12% while maintaining commercial equivalent performance. The optimal two-layer design was achieved when the Pt loading ratio between the layers was 1:6 (inner:outer layer). This MEA showed the highest ECSA and performance at 0.65 V with reduced mass transport losses. The integrity of stratified MEAs with lower Pt loading was evaluated with potential cycling and proved more durable than the monolayer MEA equivalent. The higher ionomer loading adjacent to the membrane and the bi-layer interface of the stratified catalyst layer (CL) increased moisture in the cathode CL, decreasing the degradation rate. Using ionomer stratification to decrease the Pt loading in an MEA yielded a better performance compared to the monolayer MEA design. This study, therefore, contributes to the development of more durable, cost-effective MEAs for low-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A5: Hydrogen Energy)
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17 pages, 1356 KiB  
Article
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Consumption in BRICS: Assessing the Dynamic Linkage between Foreign Capital Inflows and Energy Consumption
by Zhexuan Qin and Ilhan Ozturk
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2974; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102974 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 2263
Abstract
This study attempt to fill the research gap by figuring out the dynamic effects of foreign capital inflows effect on renewable energy and non-renewable consumption by using the time series non-linear ARDL approach for BRICS from 1991 to 2019. Non-linear ARDL estimates show [...] Read more.
This study attempt to fill the research gap by figuring out the dynamic effects of foreign capital inflows effect on renewable energy and non-renewable consumption by using the time series non-linear ARDL approach for BRICS from 1991 to 2019. Non-linear ARDL estimates show that positive change in foreign capital inflows has a positive effect on renewable consumption in Brazil, India, and South Africa in long run. Also, the negative change in foreign capital inflows exhibits negatively liked with renewable energy consumption in BRICS economies, except Russia in long run. We find that positive shock in foreign capital inflows tends to increase non-renewable energy consumption in BRICS except India in the long run. Finding suggests that negative change in foreign capital inflows has negative impacts on non-renewable energy consumption in India and Brazil, while the positive effect in only China in the long run. Full article
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16 pages, 35750 KiB  
Article
Kinetic Regularities of Methane Dry Reforming Reaction on Nickel-Containing Modified Ceria–Zirconia
by Valeria Fedorova, Mikhail Simonov, Konstantin Valeev, Yuliya Bespalko, Ekaterina Smal, Nikita Eremeev, Ekaterina Sadovskaya, Tamara Krieger, Arcady Ishchenko and Vladislav Sadykov
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2973; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102973 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 1821
Abstract
The Ni-containing catalysts based on ceria–zirconia doped with Ti and Ti+Nb were prepared by the solvothermal method in supercritical fluids. Ni deposition was carried out by incipient wetness impregnation and the one-pot technique. All materials were investigated by a complex of physicochemical methods [...] Read more.
The Ni-containing catalysts based on ceria–zirconia doped with Ti and Ti+Nb were prepared by the solvothermal method in supercritical fluids. Ni deposition was carried out by incipient wetness impregnation and the one-pot technique. All materials were investigated by a complex of physicochemical methods (XRD, BET, TEM, H2-TPR). Samples catalytic properties were studied in methane dry reforming in the plug-flow reactor. Conversions of CH4 and CO2, H2/CO ratio, and CO and H2 yields were measured, and detailed kinetics analysis was carried out. The influence of Ni loading method and support modification on the catalytic behavior in the methane dry reforming process was studied. The preparation method of catalysts affects the textural characteristics. For one-pot samples, pore volume and surface area are lower than for impregnated samples. For catalysts on modified supports, strong metal–support interaction was shown to increase catalytic activity. A reduction pretreatment of samples was shown to have significant influence on their catalytic properties. The kinetic parameters such as reaction rate constant at 700 °C, effective activation energy, and TOF were estimated and analyzed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogen and Syngas Generation)
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15 pages, 2377 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study on Relative Fossil Energy Carrying Capacity in China and the United States
by Zhili Zuo, Jinhua Cheng, Haixiang Guo and Yonglin Li
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2972; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102972 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2005
Abstract
Based on resource carrying capacity, this study used the revised theory of relative resource carrying capacity (RRCC) and introduced an innovative concept of relative fossil energy carrying capacity (RFECC), which evaluates the degree of fossil energy sustainability based on the relationship between economy, [...] Read more.
Based on resource carrying capacity, this study used the revised theory of relative resource carrying capacity (RRCC) and introduced an innovative concept of relative fossil energy carrying capacity (RFECC), which evaluates the degree of fossil energy sustainability based on the relationship between economy, population, and environment. This study took China and the United States as the study objects, took the whole country as the reference area, and calculated the RFECC of population, economic, and environmental resources from 2000 to 2018. Therefore, based on the comparative analysis, the following conclusions were drawn: (i) there is a big difference in the RFECC between China and the United States, which is manifested in the inverted U-shaped trend in China and the U-shaped trend in the United States; (ii) the relative fossil energy carrying states in China and the United States are different, mainly reflected in the economy and environment; (iii) the gap in RFECC between China and the United States has gradually widened; in general, China’s economic RFECC is better than that of the United States, while environmental RFECC and population RFECC in the United States is better than that of China; and (iv) coal and oil should be used as a breakthrough point for the sustainable fossil energy and sustainable development for China and the United States, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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23 pages, 7988 KiB  
Article
Possibilities for Developing Electromobility by Using Autonomously Powered Trolleybuses Based on the Example of Gdynia
by Mikołaj Bartłomiejczyk and Marcin Połom
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2971; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102971 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4366
Abstract
Trolleybus transport refers to contemporary challenges related to a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and CO2 into the atmosphere formulated by international institutions, such as the United Nations, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or the European Union. Departure [...] Read more.
Trolleybus transport refers to contemporary challenges related to a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and CO2 into the atmosphere formulated by international institutions, such as the United Nations, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or the European Union. Departure from fossil fuels in urban transport is one of the key challenges for the coming years. Trolleybuses are an important tool in this task, even though their importance was declining in the past. Nowadays, due to, among others, technological development, in particular the availability of high-capacity batteries, their long life and low weight, trolleybus transport is becoming popular again. The use of the existing overhead contact infrastructure of the trolleybus network and small on-board batteries allow expanding the spatial accessibility of zero-emission public transport. Thus, this reduces the social differentiation in access to environmentally friendly transport that does not emit pollutants at the place of operation. The article presents possibilities of using on-board batteries in shaping trolleybus connections with the optimal use of the existing overhead contact lines (OHL). It presents a procedure that allows for the evaluation of the extent to which the OHL should cover the routes of bus lines in order to qualify for trolleybus service in the In-Motion-Charging (IMC) technology. Analysis of the literature shows inadequate scientific studies on combining the advantages of overhead wiring and the development of on-board battery technology in popularising zero-emission transport. This article addresses the key issues related to the use of partially autonomous trolleybuses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends in the Development of Electric Vehicle)
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17 pages, 3192 KiB  
Article
Accuracy Improvement of Transformer Faults Diagnostic Based on DGA Data Using SVM-BA Classifier
by Youcef Benmahamed, Omar Kherif, Madjid Teguar, Ahmed Boubakeur and Sherif S. M. Ghoneim
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2970; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102970 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 2770
Abstract
The main objective of the current work was to enhance the transformer fault diagnostic accuracy based on dissolved gas analysis (DGA) data with a proposed coupled system of support vector machine (SVM)-bat algorithm (BA) and Gaussian classifiers. Six electrical and thermal fault classes [...] Read more.
The main objective of the current work was to enhance the transformer fault diagnostic accuracy based on dissolved gas analysis (DGA) data with a proposed coupled system of support vector machine (SVM)-bat algorithm (BA) and Gaussian classifiers. Six electrical and thermal fault classes were categorized based on the IEC and IEEE standard rules. The concentration of five main combustible gases (hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, and acetylene) was utilized as an input vector of the two classifiers. Two types of input vectors have been tested; the first input type considered the five gases in ppm, and the second input type considered the gases introduced in the percentage of the sum of the five gases. An extensive database of 481 had been used for training and testing phases (321 data samples for training and 160 data samples for testing). The SVM model conditioning parameter “λ” and penalty margin parameter “C” were adjusted through the bat algorithm to develop a maximum accuracy rate. The SVM-BA and Gaussian classifiers’ accuracy was evaluated and compared with several DGA techniques in the literature. Full article
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13 pages, 2738 KiB  
Article
A Mobile Energy Storage Unit Serving Multiple EV Charging Stations
by Mohamed M. Elmeligy, Mostafa F. Shaaban, Ahmed Azab, Maher A. Azzouz and Mohamed Mokhtar
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2969; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102969 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2347
Abstract
Due to the rapid increase in electric vehicles (EVs) globally, new technologies have emerged in recent years to meet the excess demand imposed on the power systems by EV charging. Among these technologies, a mobile energy storage system (MESS), which is a transportable [...] Read more.
Due to the rapid increase in electric vehicles (EVs) globally, new technologies have emerged in recent years to meet the excess demand imposed on the power systems by EV charging. Among these technologies, a mobile energy storage system (MESS), which is a transportable storage system that provides various utility services, was used in this study to support several charging stations, in addition to supplying power to the grid during overload and on-peak hours. Thus, this paper proposes a new day-ahead optimal operation of a single MESS unit that serves several charging stations that share the same geographical area. The operational problem is formulated as a mixed-integer non-linear programming (MINLP), where the objective is to minimize the total operating cost of the parking lots (PLs). Two different case studies are simulated to highlight the effectiveness of the proposed system compared to the current approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Demand Response Optimization Techniques for Smart Power Grids)
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17 pages, 2697 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Physical and Chemical Parameters According to Energetic Willow (Salix viminalis L.) Cultivation
by Kamil Roman, Michał Roman, Dominika Szadkowska, Jan Szadkowski and Emilia Grzegorzewska
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2968; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14102968 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1967
Abstract
The aim of this study was the investigation of the effect of growth conditions of energy willow (Salix viminalis L.) on its physical and chemical parameters towards lignocellulosic biofuels. This work is linked to the global trend of replacing fossil fuels (coal, [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was the investigation of the effect of growth conditions of energy willow (Salix viminalis L.) on its physical and chemical parameters towards lignocellulosic biofuels. This work is linked to the global trend of replacing fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) with energy and renewable fuels. This energy transition is dictated by the reduction of the human-induced greenhouse effect (to the greatest extent by industrial development). Changing from traditional to renewable energy sources results in industry becoming less dependent on fuels whose sources are beginning to run out, and in energy processing being broken down into smaller sectors with greater flexibility to change and less susceptibility to failure. The use of lignocellulosic raw materials such as wood, straw, food industry waste, wood, and post-consumer products such as old furniture for energy purposes allows the use of substances which bind the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide in their cellular structure during growth. In order to optimise the costs of producing such energy and minimise its impact on the environment, these plants should be located as close as possible to the source of raw materials. One of the most important characteristics for the profitability of energy production from woody biomass is a high biomass yield. For this purpose, the raw material used for this study was energy willow (Salix viminalis L.) seedlings, which are often used for energy crops. Due to the moisture-loving nature of the substrate, the effect of the addition of the active substance prednisonum as a catalyst for water adsorption from the substrate was investigated. In order to determine the substances formed during the thermal decomposition of energy willow (Salix viminalis L.) wood, a pyrolysis process was carried out at 450 °C using pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (PY/GC-MS). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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21 pages, 5468 KiB  
Article
Mass Transport Limitations of Water Evaporation in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Gas Diffusion Layers
by Adrian Mularczyk, Andreas Michalski, Michael Striednig, Robert Herrendörfer, Thomas J. Schmidt, Felix N. Büchi and Jens Eller
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2967; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102967 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2680
Abstract
Facilitating the proper handling of water is one of the main challenges to overcome when trying to improve fuel cell performance. Specifically, enhanced removal of liquid water from the porous gas diffusion layers (GDLs) holds a lot of potential, but has proven to [...] Read more.
Facilitating the proper handling of water is one of the main challenges to overcome when trying to improve fuel cell performance. Specifically, enhanced removal of liquid water from the porous gas diffusion layers (GDLs) holds a lot of potential, but has proven to be non-trivial. A main contributor to this removal process is the gaseous transport of water following evaporation inside the GDL or catalyst layer domain. Vapor transport is desired over liquid removal, as the liquid water takes up pore space otherwise available for reactant gas supply to the catalytically active sites and opens up the possibility to remove the waste heat of the cell by evaporative cooling concepts. To better understand evaporative water removal from fuel cells and facilitate the evaporative cooling concept developed at the Paul Scherrer Institute, the effect of gas speed (0.5–10 m/s), temperature (30–60 °C), and evaporation domain (0.8–10 mm) on the evaporation rate of water from a GDL (TGP-H-120, 10 wt% PTFE) has been investigated using an ex situ approach, combined with X-ray tomographic microscopy. An along-the-channel model showed good agreement with the measured values and was used to extrapolate the differential approach to larger domains and to investigate parameter variations that were not covered experimentally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Modeling, and Optimization of Novel Fuel Cell Systems)
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10 pages, 2182 KiB  
Article
Operational Testing of a Solid Fuel Boiler with Different Fuels
by Norbert Érces and László Kajtár
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2966; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102966 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1829
Abstract
In the course of our investigations, we burned high-quality logs as well as wood briquettes in a conventional, manually fed mixed-fired boiler, under different operating parameters. Based on the evaluation of the measurement results, there is a significant difference in terms of recoverable [...] Read more.
In the course of our investigations, we burned high-quality logs as well as wood briquettes in a conventional, manually fed mixed-fired boiler, under different operating parameters. Based on the evaluation of the measurement results, there is a significant difference in terms of recoverable energy and carbon monoxide emissions for the two fuels burned in the same device at different air supply parameters. Studies have shown that a constantly changing position of the draft control door has an adverse effect on carbon monoxide emissions as well as the energy produced. In the case of a constant draft door setting, the preset values that can be considered ideal for energy yield and CO emissions were determined for the two fuel types. The obtained results were compared with the requirements according to the MSZ EN 303-5 standard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency of the Buildings)
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17 pages, 1905 KiB  
Article
Analytic Hierarchy Process Analysis for Industrial Application of LNG Bunkering: A Comparison of Japan and South Korea
by Young-Gyu Lee, Jong-Kwan Kim and Chang-Hee Lee
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2965; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102965 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3491
Abstract
From January 2020, the International Maritime Organization has regulated ship emissions to reduce sulfur content. As an alternative to this, LNG bunkering was proposed, and infrastructure and ships were deployed. Therefore, we used analytic hierarchy process AHP techniques to determine optimal methods of [...] Read more.
From January 2020, the International Maritime Organization has regulated ship emissions to reduce sulfur content. As an alternative to this, LNG bunkering was proposed, and infrastructure and ships were deployed. Therefore, we used analytic hierarchy process AHP techniques to determine optimal methods of LNG bunkering for shipyard safety. First, we conducted a literature survey on the concept and type of LNG bunkering, global LNG bunkering trends, and features of Japan and South Korea cases and compared them. Thereafter, an expert survey was conducted, and survey data was analyzed using AHP techniques. Finally, we derived optimal methods applicable to shipyard industry. The analytical results revealed that the derived priority of the optimal LNG bunkering method of shipyard was in the order of the STS method, TTS method, and the PTS method. The result of this study can serve as a theoretical basis to make LNG bunkering safer and more economical in shipyards to prepare for the expansion of demand of LNG-fueled ships and LNG. However, this study inevitably has limitations of ranking reversals paradox as it was conducted by experts, assuming no weights to STS, TTS, or PTS. Full article
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25 pages, 311 KiB  
Article
Can Mixed-Ownership Reform Drive the Green Transformation of SOEs?
by Runsen Yuan, Chunling Li, Nian Li, Muhammad Asif Khan, Xiaoran Sun and Nosherwan Khaliq
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2964; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102964 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3292
Abstract
In the construction of ecological civilization, green innovation has become an important driving force for the sustainable development of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). This paper uses panel data of state-owned listed enterprises from 2008 to 2019 to explore mixed-ownership reform’s influence on the green [...] Read more.
In the construction of ecological civilization, green innovation has become an important driving force for the sustainable development of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). This paper uses panel data of state-owned listed enterprises from 2008 to 2019 to explore mixed-ownership reform’s influence on the green transformation of SOEs and its specific mechanisms. The results show that the diversity of mixed shareholders, the depth of mixed equity, and the restriction of mixed equity significantly promote the SOEs’ green innovation. Moreover, there are distinctions in the impact of the shareholding ratio of heterogeneous shareholders on green innovation. Only the increase in the shareholding ratio of foreign shareholders has a positive correlation with green innovation. The mechanism tests indicate that the mixed-ownership reform plays a governance role in the green transformation of SOEs by optimizing the reasonable allocation of environmental protection subsidies and propelling environmental social responsibility’s active performance. Our study further subdivides the significant promotion effect of mixed-ownership reform on green innovation, finding that it only exists in the SOEs in heavily polluting industries and regions with a high degree of marketization. Finally, we find that the ownership structure adjustment caused by the mixed-ownership reform has improved SOEs’ environmental management system and facilitated its sustainable development capabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management and Technology for Energy Efficiency Development)
22 pages, 3581 KiB  
Article
Economic Development Based on a Mathematical Model: An Optimal Solution Method for the Fuel Supply of International Road Transport Activity
by Melinda Timea Fülöp, Miklós Gubán, György Kovács and Mihály Avornicului
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2963; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102963 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1988
Abstract
Due to globalization and increased market competition, forwarding companies must focus on the optimization of their international transport activities and on cost reduction. The minimization of the amount and cost of fuel results in increased competition and profitability of the companies as well [...] Read more.
Due to globalization and increased market competition, forwarding companies must focus on the optimization of their international transport activities and on cost reduction. The minimization of the amount and cost of fuel results in increased competition and profitability of the companies as well as the reduction of environmental damage. Nowadays, these aspects are particularly important. This research aims to develop a new optimization method for road freight transport costs in order to reduce the fuel costs and determine optimal fueling stations and to calculate the optimal quantity of fuel to refill. The mathematical method developed in this research has two phases. In the first phase the optimal, most cost-effective fuel station is determined based on the potential fuel stations. The specific fuel prices differ per fuel station, and the stations are located at different distances from the main transport way. The method developed in this study supports drivers’ decision-making regarding whether to refuel at a farther but cheaper fuel station or at a nearer but more expensive fuel station based on the more economical choice. Thereafter, it is necessary to determine the optimal fuel volume, i.e., the exact volume required including a safe amount to cover stochastic incidents (e.g., road closures). This aspect of the optimization method supports drivers’ optimal decision-making regarding optimal fuel stations and how much fuel to obtain in order to reduce the fuel cost. Therefore, the application of this new method instead of the recently applied ad-hoc individual decision-making of the drivers results in significant fuel cost savings. A case study confirmed the efficiency of the proposed method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic Development and the Audit Function in the Energy Sector)
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14 pages, 1591 KiB  
Review
Process Water Recirculation during Hydrothermal Carbonization of Waste Biomass: Current Knowledge and Challenges
by Antonio Picone, Maurizio Volpe and Antonio Messineo
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2962; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102962 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 2616
Abstract
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is considered as an efficient and constantly expanding eco-friendly methodology for thermochemical processing of high moisture waste biomass into solid biofuels and valuable carbonaceous materials. However, during HTC, a considerable amount of organics, initially present in the feedstock, are found [...] Read more.
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is considered as an efficient and constantly expanding eco-friendly methodology for thermochemical processing of high moisture waste biomass into solid biofuels and valuable carbonaceous materials. However, during HTC, a considerable amount of organics, initially present in the feedstock, are found in the process water (PW). PW recirculation is attracting an increasing interest in the hydrothermal process field as it offers the potential to increase the carbon recovery yield while increasing hydrochar energy density. PW recirculation can be considered as a viable method for the valorization and reuse of the HTC aqueous phase, both by reducing the amount of additional water used for the process and maximizing energy recovery from the HTC liquid residual fraction. In this work, the effects of PW recirculation, for different starting waste biomasses, on the properties of hydrochars and liquid phase products are reviewed. The mechanism of production and evolution of hydrochar during recirculation steps are discussed, highlighting the possible pathways which could enhance energy and carbon recovery. Challenges of PW recirculation are presented and research opportunities proposed, showing how PW recirculation could increase the economic viability of the process while contributing in mitigating environmental impacts. Full article
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18 pages, 3280 KiB  
Article
Power Distribution Optimization Based on Demand Respond with Improved Multi-Objective Algorithm in Power System Planning
by Oveis Abedinia and Mehdi Bagheri
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2961; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102961 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2099
Abstract
In this article, a novel dynamic economic load dispatch with emission based on a multi-objective model (MODEED) considering demand side management (DSM) is presented. Moreover, the investigation and evaluation of impacts of DSM for the next day are considered. In other words, the [...] Read more.
In this article, a novel dynamic economic load dispatch with emission based on a multi-objective model (MODEED) considering demand side management (DSM) is presented. Moreover, the investigation and evaluation of impacts of DSM for the next day are considered. In other words, the aim of economical load dispatch is the suitable and optimized planning for all power units considering different linear and non-linear constrains for power system and generators. In this model, different constrains such as losses of transformation network, impacts of valve-point, ramp-up and ramp-down, the balance of production and demand, the prohibited areas, and the limitations of production are considered as an optimization problem. The proposed model is solved by a novel modified multi-objective artificial bee colony algorithm (MOABC). In order to analyze the effects of DSM on the supply side, the proposed MODEED is evaluated on different scenarios with or without DSM. Indeed, the proposed MOABC algorithm tries to find an optimal solution for the existence function by assistance of crowding distance and Pareto theory. Crowding distance is a suitable criterion to estimate Pareto solutions. The proposed model is carried out on a six-unit test system, and the obtained numerical analyses are compared with the obtained results of other optimization methods. The obtained results of simulations that have been provided in the last section demonstrate the higher efficiency of the proposed optimization algorithm based on Pareto criterion. The main benefits of this algorithm are its fast convergence and searching based on circle movement. In addition, it is obvious from the obtained results that the proposed MODEED with DSM can present benefits for all consumers and generation companies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forecasting and Planning in Power Systems)
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15 pages, 3807 KiB  
Article
Remote Sensing for Monitoring Photovoltaic Solar Plants in Brazil Using Deep Semantic Segmentation
by Marcus Vinícius Coelho Vieira da Costa, Osmar Luiz Ferreira de Carvalho, Alex Gois Orlandi, Issao Hirata, Anesmar Olino de Albuquerque, Felipe Vilarinho e Silva, Renato Fontes Guimarães, Roberto Arnaldo Trancoso Gomes and Osmar Abílio de Carvalho Júnior
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2960; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102960 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 4221
Abstract
Brazil is a tropical country with continental dimensions and abundant solar resources that are still underutilized. However, solar energy is one of the most promising renewable sources in the country. The proper inspection of Photovoltaic (PV) solar plants is an issue of great [...] Read more.
Brazil is a tropical country with continental dimensions and abundant solar resources that are still underutilized. However, solar energy is one of the most promising renewable sources in the country. The proper inspection of Photovoltaic (PV) solar plants is an issue of great interest for the Brazilian territory’s energy management agency, and advances in computer vision and deep learning allow automatic, periodic, and low-cost monitoring. The present research aims to identify PV solar plants in Brazil using semantic segmentation and a mosaicking approach for large image classification. We compared four architectures (U-net, DeepLabv3+, Pyramid Scene Parsing Network, and Feature Pyramid Network) with four backbones (Efficient-net-b0, Efficient-net-b7, ResNet-50, and ResNet-101). For mosaicking, we evaluated a sliding window with overlapping pixels using different stride values (8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256). We found that: (1) the models presented similar results, showing that the most relevant approach is to acquire high-quality labels rather than models in many scenarios; (2) U-net presented slightly better metrics, and the best configuration was U-net with the Efficient-net-b7 encoder (98% overall accuracy, 91% IoU, and 95% F-score); (3) mosaicking progressively increases results (precision-recall and receiver operating characteristic area under the curve) when decreasing the stride value, at the cost of a higher computational cost. The high trends of solar energy growth in Brazil require rapid mapping, and the proposed study provides a promising approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue GIS and Remote Sensing for Renewable Energy Assessment and Maps)
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17 pages, 1052 KiB  
Article
An IoT-Based Smart Building Solution for Indoor Environment Management and Occupants Prediction
by Alessandro Floris, Simone Porcu, Roberto Girau and Luigi Atzori
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2959; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102959 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3668
Abstract
Smart buildings use Internet of Things (IoT) sensors for monitoring indoor environmental parameters, such as temperature, humidity, luminosity, and air quality. Due to the huge amount of data generated by these sensors, data analytics and machine learning techniques are needed to extract useful [...] Read more.
Smart buildings use Internet of Things (IoT) sensors for monitoring indoor environmental parameters, such as temperature, humidity, luminosity, and air quality. Due to the huge amount of data generated by these sensors, data analytics and machine learning techniques are needed to extract useful and interesting insights, which provide the input for the building optimization in terms of energy-saving, occupants’ health and comfort. In this paper, we propose an IoT-based smart building (SB) solution for indoor environment management, which aims to provide the following main functionalities: monitoring of the room environmental parameters; detection of the number of occupants in the room; a cloud platform where virtual entities collect the data acquired by the sensors and virtual super entities perform data analysis tasks using machine learning algorithms; a control dashboard for the management and control of the building. With our prototype, we collected data for 10 days, and we built two prediction models: a classification model that predicts the number of occupants based on the monitored environmental parameters (average accuracy of 99.5%), and a regression model that predicts the total volatile organic compound (TVOC) values based on the environmental parameters and the number of occupants (Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.939). Full article
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31 pages, 11258 KiB  
Article
Impact of Control System Model Parameters on the Obstacle Avoidance by an Autonomous Car-Trailer Unit: Research Results
by Leon Prochowski, Mateusz Ziubiński, Patryk Szwajkowski, Mirosław Gidlewski, Tomasz Pusty and Tomasz Lech Stańczyk
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2958; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102958 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2237
Abstract
The introduction of autonomous cars will help to improve road traffic safety, and the use of a cargo trailer improves the energy efficiency of transport. One of the critical (collision) road situations has been considered, where immediate counteraction is required in a space [...] Read more.
The introduction of autonomous cars will help to improve road traffic safety, and the use of a cargo trailer improves the energy efficiency of transport. One of the critical (collision) road situations has been considered, where immediate counteraction is required in a space that has been only partly defined. This research work was aimed at determining the impact of the trajectory planning method and the values of some parameters of the control system on the feasibility of safe avoidance of an obstacle that has suddenly appeared. The obstacle is assumed to be a motor vehicle moving on a road intersection along a collision path in relation to the autonomous car-trailer unit (CT unit) travelling at high speed. Analysis of cooperation between several non-linear models (representing the car, trailer, tyre–road interaction, and driving controller) has been carried out. Mathematical models of the control system and the CT unit have been built. The process of selection of temporary and variable parameters, applied to the control system for the time of the critical situation under consideration, has been shown. The research work carried out has made it possible to recommend appropriate parameter values for the control system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle and Traffic Safety)
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21 pages, 845 KiB  
Article
The Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Alleviating Energy Poverty in Households in Poland
by Agnieszka Biernat-Jarka, Paulina Trębska and Sławomir Jarka
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2957; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102957 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3231
Abstract
Energy poverty is a problem that affects all member states of the European Union to a varying degree, including Poland, where about 9% of the population is at risk of energy poverty. The article aims to show the changes in energy poverty in [...] Read more.
Energy poverty is a problem that affects all member states of the European Union to a varying degree, including Poland, where about 9% of the population is at risk of energy poverty. The article aims to show the changes in energy poverty in Poland in 2010–2018. The specific goal, however, is to evaluate government measures aimed at reducing energy poverty through investments based on renewable energy sources. To present changes in the level of energy poverty in 2010–2018, the authors proposed a new synthetic measure that unifies several different measures used by researchers and allows for a comprehensive assessment of this phenomenon. The conducted research showed that in 2010–2018 there was a slow but visible decrease in the level of energy poverty in Poland. In addition, the article indicates investments in renewable energy sources that may have a positive impact on reducing the scale of energy poverty in Poland. The programs implemented with national and EU public funds, which finance investments in renewable energy sources in Poland, are also presented. Full article
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18 pages, 1287 KiB  
Article
A Procedure for Automating Energy Analyses in the BIM Context Exploiting Artificial Neural Networks and Transfer Learning Technique
by Mikhail Demianenko and Carlo Iapige De Gaetani
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2956; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102956 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2515
Abstract
One of the main benefits of Building Information Modelling is the capability of improving the decision-making process thanks performing what-if tests on digital twins of the building to be realized. Pairing BIM models to Building Energy Models allows designers to determine in advance [...] Read more.
One of the main benefits of Building Information Modelling is the capability of improving the decision-making process thanks performing what-if tests on digital twins of the building to be realized. Pairing BIM models to Building Energy Models allows designers to determine in advance the energy consumption of the building, improving sustainability of the construction. The challenge is to consider as many elements involved in the energy balance as possible and shuffling their parameters within a certain range. In this work, the automatic creation of a relevant set of design options to be analyzed for searching the optimum has been carried out. Firstly, the usual workflow that would be applied manually has been automatically followed by running scripts and codes, depending just on the initial setup given by the user. Although the procedure is very resource consuming, the main advancement relies in the reduction of the manual intervention and the possibility of creating large datasets of design options, avoiding gross errors. Secondly, Artificial Neural Networks and Transfer Learning techniques are applied to speed up the process of dataset creation. With such approach, the same dataset has been created, with about 30% of initial data and without significant loss of accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Energy, Environment and Well-Being)
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20 pages, 6947 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity Study on the Correlation Level of Seismic Failures in Seismic Probabilistic Safety Assessments
by Geon Gyu Choi, Woo Sik Jung and Seong Kyu Park
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2955; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102955 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1414
Abstract
It is popular that correlated seismic failures spread over the fault tree of a seismic probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) for a nuclear power plant (NPP). To avoid the calculational difficulty of core damage frequency (CDF), the fault tree has been simplified by replacing [...] Read more.
It is popular that correlated seismic failures spread over the fault tree of a seismic probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) for a nuclear power plant (NPP). To avoid the calculational difficulty of core damage frequency (CDF), the fault tree has been simplified by replacing correlated seismic failures with one typical seismic failure by assuming a full correlation among the correlated seismic failures. Then, the approximate seismic CDF of a seismic single-unit PSA (SUPSA) has been calculated for decades with this simplified SUPSA fault tree. Furthermore, current seismic multi-unit PSAs (MUPSAs) have been performed with imperfect seismic MUPSA models that were generated by combining such imperfect seismic SUPSA fault trees. The authors of this study recently developed a method that can calculate an accurate seismic CDF by converting correlated seismic failures into seismic common cause failures (CCFs). In this study, accurate and imperfect MUPSA models were created and their seismic CDFs were compared. The results of this study show that the seismic CDFs in SUPSA and MUPSA are drastically distorted and safety margins are accordingly distorted when the full correlation assumption is employed. Thus, this study shows that very careful attention should be paid to calculating and interpreting seismic CDFs for the single-unit and multi-unit NPP regulations. Full article
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14 pages, 1514 KiB  
Article
The Study of the Faba Bean Waste and Potato Peels Recycling for Pellet Production and Usage for Energy Conversion
by Aleksandra Minajeva, Algirdas Jasinskas, Rolandas Domeika, Edvardas Vaiciukevičius, Egidijus Lemanas and Stanisław Bielski
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2954; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102954 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2500
Abstract
The article presents the results of a study on the preparation and use of faba bean waste and potato peel pellets for energy purposes. Physical and mechanical characteristics (moisture, density, ash content) of faba bean waste and potato peel pellets were investigated. The [...] Read more.
The article presents the results of a study on the preparation and use of faba bean waste and potato peel pellets for energy purposes. Physical and mechanical characteristics (moisture, density, ash content) of faba bean waste and potato peel pellets were investigated. The largest fraction of flour was formed on a sieve with 1 mm holes: faba bean waste—28.2 ± 2.02 g, potato peels—29.09 ± 0.73 g. For this experiment, samples were taken by mixing faba bean waste (four variants) and potato peel in the ratio of 1:1; 1:2; 1:3; 1:4 by volume (12 samples). It was found in this study that the density of pellets (DM) ranged from 1226.22 ± 13.88 kgm−3 to 1349.79 ± 6.79 kgm−3. The pellet moisture ranged from 6.70 ± 0.04% to 3.64 ± 0.13%. The lower calorific value of dry fuel pellets ranged from 15.27 ± 0.43 MJkg−1 to 16.02 ± 0.50 MJkg−1. The ash content of the pellets ranged from 8.05 ± 0.57% to 14.21 ± 0.05%. The ST temperature of the experimentally measured mixture of faba bean waste and potato peel pellets ranged from 924 to 969 °C; the DT temperature ranged from 944 to 983 °C; the HT temperature ranged from 1073 to 1202 °C, and a change in FT temperature from 1174 to 1234 °C was observed. The temperatures were sufficiently high to melt the ash. Specific emissions of CO2, CO, NOx and CxHy did not exceed the maximum levels allowed. In summary, from the results of the study of the physical properties, combustion, and emissions of waste beans and potato peel pellets (all samples), it is evident that they are used for biofuels. The combustion process of this type of pellet is characterized by efficient combustion and minimal emissions to the atmosphere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploitation of Renewable Energy Sources for Power Generation)
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15 pages, 806 KiB  
Article
Demand Response Alert Service Based on Appliance Modeling
by Ioanna-M. Chatzigeorgiou, Christos Diou, Kyriakos C. Chatzidimitriou and Georgios T. Andreou
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2953; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102953 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1468
Abstract
Demand response has been widely developed during recent years to increase efficiency and decrease the cost in the electric power sector by shifting energy use, smoothening the load curve, and thus ensuring benefits for all participating parties. This paper introduces a Demand Response [...] Read more.
Demand response has been widely developed during recent years to increase efficiency and decrease the cost in the electric power sector by shifting energy use, smoothening the load curve, and thus ensuring benefits for all participating parties. This paper introduces a Demand Response Alert Service (DRAS) that can optimize the interaction between the energy industry parties and end users by sending the minimum number of relatable alerts to satisfy the transformation of the load curve. The service creates appliance models for certain deferrable appliances based on past-usage measurements and prioritizes households according to the probability of the use of their appliances. Several variations of the appliance model are examined with respect to the probabilistic association of appliance usage on different days. The service is evaluated for a peak-shaving scenario when either one or more appliances per household are involved. The results demonstrate a significant improvement compared to a random selection of end users, thus promising increased participation and engagement. Indicatively, in terms of the Area Under the Curve (AUC) index, the proposed method achieves, in all the studied scenarios, an improvement ranging between 41.33% and 64.64% compared to the baseline scenario. In terms of the F1 score index, the respective improvement reaches up to 221.05%. Full article
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16 pages, 951 KiB  
Article
Cultivation Method Effect on Schizochytrium sp. Biomass Growth and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Production with the Use of Waste Glycerol as a Source of Organic Carbon
by Natalia Kujawska, Szymon Talbierz, Marcin Dębowski, Joanna Kazimierowicz and Marcin Zieliński
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2952; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102952 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3690
Abstract
Inexpensive carbon sources offering an alternative to glucose are searched for to reduce costs of docosahexaenoic acid production by microalgae. The use of waste glycerol seems substantiated and prospective in this case. The objective of this study was to determine the production yield [...] Read more.
Inexpensive carbon sources offering an alternative to glucose are searched for to reduce costs of docosahexaenoic acid production by microalgae. The use of waste glycerol seems substantiated and prospective in this case. The objective of this study was to determine the production yield of heterotrophic microalgae Schizochytrium sp. biomass and the efficiency of docosahexaenoic acid production in various types of cultures with waste glycerol. Cultivation conditions were optimized using the Plackett–Burman method and Response Surface Methodology. The highest technological performance was obtained in the fed-batch culture, where the concentration of Schizochytrium sp. biomass reached 103.44 ± 1.50 g/dm3, the lipid concentration in Schizochytrium sp. biomass was at 48.85 ± 0.81 g/dm3, and the docosahexaenoic acid concentration at 21.98 ± 0.36 g/dm3. The highest docosahexaenoic acid content, accounting for 61.76 ± 3.77% of total fatty acids, was determined in lipid bodies of the Schizochytrium sp. biomass produced in the batch culture, whereas the lowest one, accounting for 44.99 ± 2.12% of total fatty acids, in those of the biomass grown in the fed-batch culture. Full article
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27 pages, 9639 KiB  
Article
Development of a Flexible Framework Multi-Design Optimization Scheme for a Hand Launched Fuel Cell-Powered UAV
by Zaid O. Alrayes and Mohamed Gadalla
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2951; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102951 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2005
Abstract
This paper presents different methods for the design of a hand-launchable, fixed wing, fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to maximize flight endurance during steady level flight missions. The proposed design methods include the development of physical models for different propulsion system components. [...] Read more.
This paper presents different methods for the design of a hand-launchable, fixed wing, fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to maximize flight endurance during steady level flight missions. The proposed design methods include the development of physical models for different propulsion system components. The performance characteristics of the aircraft are modeled through empirical contributing analyses in which each analysis corresponds to an aircraft subsystem. The contributing analyses are collected to form a design structure matrix which is included into a multi-disciplinary analysis to solve for the design variables over a defined design space. The optimal solution is found using a comprehensive optimization tool developed for long endurance flight missions. Optimization results showed a significant improvement in UAV flight endurance that reached up to 475 min with take-off ratio equals to 59 min/kg. Wind tunnel and bench-top tests and HiL simulation tests are performed to validate the results obtained from the optimization tools. Validated optimization results showed an increase of the overall UAV flight endurance by 19.4% compared to classical approaches in design methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Modeling, and Optimization of Novel Fuel Cell Systems)
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16 pages, 5333 KiB  
Article
Off-Design Dynamic Performance Analysis of a Solar Aided Coal-Fired Power Plant
by Vinod Kumar and Liqiang Duan
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2950; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102950 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2153
Abstract
Coal consumption and CO2 emissions are the major concerns of the 21st century. Solar aided (coal-fired) power generation (SAPG) is paid more and more attention globally, due to the lesser coal rate and initial cost than the original coal-fired power plant and [...] Read more.
Coal consumption and CO2 emissions are the major concerns of the 21st century. Solar aided (coal-fired) power generation (SAPG) is paid more and more attention globally, due to the lesser coal rate and initial cost than the original coal-fired power plant and CSP technology respectively. In this paper, the off-design dynamic performance simulation model of a solar aided coal-fired power plant is established. A 330 MW subcritical coal-fired power plant is taken as a case study. On a typical day, three various collector area solar fields are integrated into the coal-fired power plant. By introducing the solar heat, the variations of system performances are analyzed at design load, 75% load, and 50% load. Analyzed parameters with the change of DNI include the thermal oil mass flow rate, the mass flow rate of feed water heated by the solar energy, steam extraction mass flow rate, coal consumption, and the plant thermal efficiency. The research results show that, as DNI increases over a day, the coal saving rate will also increase, the maximum coal saving rate reaches up to 5%, and plant thermal efficiency reaches 40%. It is analyzed that the SAPG system gives the best performance at a lower load and a large aperture area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solar PV, Thermal, Concentrator and Hybrid Power Systems)
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26 pages, 11476 KiB  
Article
Computing Localized Breakthrough Curves and Velocities of Saline Tracer from Ground Penetrating Radar Monitoring Experiments in Fractured Rock
by Peter-Lasse Giertzuch, Alexis Shakas, Joseph Doetsch, Bernard Brixel, Mohammadreza Jalali and Hansruedi Maurer
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2949; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102949 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1873
Abstract
Solute tracer tests are an established method for the characterization of flow and transport processes in fractured rock. Such tests are often monitored with borehole sensors which offer high temporal sampling and signal to noise ratio, but only limited spatial deployment possibilities. Ground [...] Read more.
Solute tracer tests are an established method for the characterization of flow and transport processes in fractured rock. Such tests are often monitored with borehole sensors which offer high temporal sampling and signal to noise ratio, but only limited spatial deployment possibilities. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is sensitive to electromagnetic properties, and can thus be used to monitor the transport behavior of electrically conductive tracers. Since GPR waves can sample large volumes that are practically inaccessible by traditional borehole sensors, they are expected to increase the spatial resolution of tracer experiments. In this manuscript, we describe two approaches to infer quantitative hydrological data from time-lapse borehole reflection GPR experiments with saline tracers in fractured rock. An important prerequisite of our method includes the generation of GPR data difference images. We show how the calculation of difference radar breakthrough curves (DRBTC) allows to retrieve relative electrical conductivity breakthrough curves for theoretically arbitrary locations in the subsurface. For sufficiently small fracture apertures we found the relation between the DRBTC values and the electrical conductivity in the fracture to be quasi-linear. Additionally, we describe a flow path reconstruction procedure that allows computing approximate flow path distances using reflection GPR data from at least two boreholes. From the temporal information during the time-lapse GPR surveys, we are finally able to calculate flow-path averaged tracer velocities. Our new methods were applied to a field data set that was acquired at the Grimsel Test Site in Switzerland. DRBTCs were successfully calculated for previously inaccessible locations in the experimental rock volume and the flow path averaged velocity field was found to be in good accordance with previous studies at the Grimsel Test Site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Evaluation of Geothermal Reservoirs)
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14 pages, 2810 KiB  
Article
Decentral Energy Generation Potential of Anaerobic Digestion of Black Water and Kitchen Refuse for Eco-District Planning
by Soufia Mohammadi, Pilar Monsalvete Álvarez de Uribarri and Ursula Eicker
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2948; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102948 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2231
Abstract
Biogas technology is an important alternative energy source worldwide. Blackwater and kitchen refuse represent ideal waste streams for bioenergy recovery through anaerobic co-digestion. Modeling of the biokinetics of anaerobic digestion on several aspects, such as microbial activity, substrate degradation, and methane production, from [...] Read more.
Biogas technology is an important alternative energy source worldwide. Blackwater and kitchen refuse represent ideal waste streams for bioenergy recovery through anaerobic co-digestion. Modeling of the biokinetics of anaerobic digestion on several aspects, such as microbial activity, substrate degradation, and methane production, from co-digestion of black water (BW) and kitchen refuse (KR) was the objective of this research. A mathematical model was developed towards a simulation based on mass balances on biomass, the organic substrate, and biogas. The model was implemented in INSEL and experimental data from the literature were used for model validation. The study shows that the simulation results fit well with the experimental data. The energy consumption and generation potential of anaerobic co-digestion of BW and KR were calculated to investigate if the produced biogas could supply the digester’s energy demand. This study can be used to pre-design anaerobic digestion systems in eco-districts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Implementation of Clean Energy Hubs)
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14 pages, 1200 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Oil Price on Transition toward Renewable Energy Consumption? Evidence from Russia
by Rıdvan Karacan, Shahriyar Mukhtarov, İsmail Barış, Aykut İşleyen and Mehmet Emin Yardımcı
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2947; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102947 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5187
Abstract
This research investigates the impact of oil price, income and carbon dioxide emissions on renewable energy consumption in Russia for the data period from 1990 to 2015, using the Vector Error Correction Models and the Canonical Cointegrating Regression method. This article is the [...] Read more.
This research investigates the impact of oil price, income and carbon dioxide emissions on renewable energy consumption in Russia for the data period from 1990 to 2015, using the Vector Error Correction Models and the Canonical Cointegrating Regression method. This article is the only study conducting individual time-series analysis that emphasizes the effect of oil price on renewable energy consumption in the case of Russia. The results of empirical analysis conclude that oil price affects renewable energy consumption negatively. The negative oil price effects on renewable energy use can be interpreted as a sign of issue that stems from higher oil prices and slows the transition from conventional to renewable energy sources. Additionally, we found that there is a positive and statistically significant influence of real GDP per capita as a proxy of income on renewable energy consumption, whereas the carbon dioxide emissions have a negative and statistically insignificant influence on renewable energy consumption. Considering these empirical results, Russia, which has a significant share in energy production in the world, should focus on the use of renewable energy in order to maintain this superiority and its sustainability. The findings of this paper may be useful to policymakers and may help to contribute to existing literature for future research in the case of oil-exporting countries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy for a Sustainable Economic Growth)
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21 pages, 2847 KiB  
Article
The Significance of the Adaptive Thermal Comfort Practice over the Structure Retrofits to Sustain Indoor Thermal Comfort
by Aiman Albatayneh, Mustafa Jaradat, Mhd Bashar AlKhatib, Ramez Abdallah, Adel Juaidi and Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro
Energies 2021, 14(10), 2946; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102946 - 19 May 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3331
Abstract
Any building’s design should sustain thermal comfort for occupants and promote less energy usage during its lifetime using accurate building retrofits to convert existing buildings into low-energy buildings so that the heating and cooling loads can be minimized. Regarding the methodology adopted in [...] Read more.
Any building’s design should sustain thermal comfort for occupants and promote less energy usage during its lifetime using accurate building retrofits to convert existing buildings into low-energy buildings so that the heating and cooling loads can be minimized. Regarding the methodology adopted in this research, an energy model of an educational building located at the German Jordanian University in Jordan was constructed utilizing DesignBuilder computer software. In addition, it was calibrated utilizing real energy consumption data for a 12-month simulation of energy performance. Subsequently, a computerized evaluation of the roles of building envelope retrofits or the adaptive thermal comfort limits in the reduction of the overall building energy consumption was analyzed. The results of the study show that the current building’s external wall insulation, roof insulation, glazing, windows, and external shading devices are relatively energy-efficient but with high cost, resulting in significant financial losses, even though they achieved noticeable energy savings. For instance, equipping the building’s ventilation system with an economizer culminated in the highest financial profit, contributing to an annual energy savings of 155 MWh. On the other hand, in an occupant-centered approach, applying the adaptive thermal comfort model in wider ranges by adding 1 °C, 2 °C, and 3 °C to the existing operating temperatures would save a significant amount of energy with the least cost (while maintaining indoor thermal comfort), taking over any retrofit option. Using different adaptive thermal comfort scenarios (1 °C, 2 °C, and 3 °C) led to significant savings of around 5%, 12%, and 21%, respectively. However, using different retrofits techniques proved to be costly, with minimum energy savings compared to the adaptive approach. Full article
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