Next Article in Journal
Effects of Amendment with Various Vermicomposts on the Soil Fertility, Growth of Brassica chinensis L., and Resistance of Spodoptera litura Fabricius larvae
Next Article in Special Issue
Drought Stress Alleviation by Potassium-Nitrate-Containing Chitosan/Montmorillonite Microparticles Confers Changes in Spinacia oleracea L.
Previous Article in Journal
A Global Media Analysis of the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Chicken Meat Food Systems: Key Vulnerabilities and Opportunities for Building Resilience
Previous Article in Special Issue
Lilium philadelphicum Flower as a Novel Source of Antimicrobial Agents: A Study of Bioactivity, Phytochemical Analysis, and Partial Identification of Antimicrobial Metabolites
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 13
Issue 16
10.3390/su13169437
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Mineral Fertilizers Improves the Quality of Turmeric and Soil

by
Dilfuza Jabborova
1,*,
Khurshid Sulaymanov
1,
R. Z. Sayyed
2,*,
Saad H. Alotaibi
3,
Yuriy Enakiev
4,
Abdulahat Azimov
1,
Zafarjon Jabbarov
5,
Mohammad Javed Ansari
6,
Shah Fahad
7,*,
Subhan Danish
7,* and
Rahul Datta
8
1
Institute of Genetics and Plants Experimental Biology, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Kibray 111208, Uzbekistan
2
Department of Microbiology, PSGVP Mandal’s, Arts, Science & Commerce College, Shahada 425409, India
3
Department of Chemistry, Turabah University College, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
4
Agricultural Academy, “Nikola Pushkarov” Institute of Soil Science, Agrotechnology and Plant Protection, Sofia 1331, Bulgaria
5
Department of Soil Science, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent 100125, Uzbekistan
6
Department of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Rohilkhand University Bareilly, Moradabad 244001, India
7
Hainan Key Laboratory for Sustainable Utilization of Tropical Bioresource, College of Tropical Crops, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, China
8
Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska1, 61300 Brno, Czech Republic
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2021, 13(16), 9437; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13169437
Submission received: 4 July 2021 / Revised: 12 August 2021 / Accepted: 13 August 2021 / Published: 23 August 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Management and Agricultural Sustainability: Rhizobacteria, Organic and Inorganic Amendments)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
An experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of different mineral fertilizers on mineral contents in turmeric rhizomes and soil enzyme activities and soil properties under field conditions in Uzbekistan. The present study is the first report on the impact of mineral fertilizers in turmeric rhizomes and soil enzymes and soil properties in Uzbekistan. The experiment was carried out with four treatments: T1—Control, T2—N75P50K50 kg/ha, T3—N125P100K100 kg/ha, and T4—N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe6 kg/ha. Turmeric rhizomes and soil samples were collected from field experiments at the Surkhandarya scientific experimental station of the vegetable, melon crops and potato research institute, Surkhandarya, Uzbekistan. The data showed that T3—the NPK (125:100:100 kg/ha) and T4—the NPK + BZnFe (100:75:75:3:6:6 kg/ha) treatments significantly enhanced K content by 27–21%, Ca content by 43–38%, and P content by 54–17% in turmeric rhizomes as compared to control without fertilizer. A maximum of turmeric rhizome microelements content was recorded with T4, which also resulted in improved Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr, and Mo contents in turmeric rhizomes and mineral contents of soil compared to other treatments. This treatment significantly enhanced active P content by 34%, active K content by 25%, total P content by 62%, total K content by 14%, and the activities of soil urease, invertase, catalase, and phosphatase over those in the control. The present study results suggest that the application of NPK + BZnFe (100:75:75:3:6:6 kg/ha) improves macro and micronutrient contents in turmeric rhizomes and activities of soil enzymes and physicochemical properties of soil.

1. Introduction

Herbal plants hold medicinal significance and have been an integral part of traditional and modern medicine [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is a rhizomatous medicated herb originated from Southeast Asia. Its dried rhizome is known as turmeric [7]. The dried rhizome powder and oil are antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, and antidepressant [8]. Curcumin reduces intestinal gas formation. Curcumin is used for the cure of cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, allergies, etc. Turmeric contains yellow compounds called curcuminoids and volatile oil, which possess antifungal and antibacterial activities [9]. Turmeric contains 3.5% minerals, 69.9%, 21% g dietary fiber, 8% protein, and 3% sugar [10].
The mineral content of soil affects the yield and biochemical content of turmeric [11,12,13]. Low productivity due to poor nutrient management has been the major constraint in yield and quality of turmeric. However, the turmeric crop is known to respond well to mineral fertilizer application. Hence, it is necessary to supply adequate doses of proper mineral fertilizers to grow and yield such medicinal and aromatic crops. We evaluated the influence of mineral fertilizers on the nutrient contents of turmeric rhizomes and soil nutrient content and enzyme activities in the Surkhandarya region of Uzbekistan.
Turmeric crops exhaust soil fertility and require high amounts of fertilizers [14]. For good yields and soil fertility, the replenishment of soil fertility is necessary [14]. Soil fertility for turmeric cropping has been based on adding various mineral fertilizers [15]. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, either individually or in combination, provide the main nutrient elements for the good growth, quality, and yield of crops [16]. This can be also be achieved by organic fertilization through the application of animal manure. However, the absorption of mineral fertilizers has been more effective in promoting turmeric growth than organic (poultry) manure [17].
The application of mineral fertilizer and its doses positively impact the yield of turmeric. Turmeric has higher nutritional requirements, especially for NPK fertilizers [14]. The soil rich in nutrients is desired for metabolism and biochemical contents of crop [9]. The appropriate combination and effective doses of essential elements can positively improve the yield and quality of turmeric [18]. Soils deficient in active nutrients may negatively impact the quality and effectiveness of medicinal plants [19]. Improving plant nutrition will improve the quantity and quality of turmeric [20,21,22].

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Design of Experiments

We used the turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) rhizome for field experiments (Figure 1). The experiments were conducted in a split plot in five replications under field conditions at Termez district, Uzbekistan.
The following mineral salt fertilizers were used for the experiment: N-Urea (NH2)2CO; P-NH4H2PO4; K-KCI; B-H3BO3; Zn-ZnSO4 and Fe-Fe2SO4. Experimental treatments comprised:
T1—Control;
T2—NPK applied in the ratio of 75: 50:50 kg/ha;
T3—NPK applied in the ratio of 125:100:100 kg/ha;
T4—NPK and BZF applied in the ratio of 100:75:75 and 3:6:6 kg/ha.
Rhizomes were sown in plots and mineral fertilizers were applied in different combinations as mentioned above. Among the mineral fertilizers, 50% of P2O5 was applied two times before planting and 50% at 45 days after planting. Nitrogen (N) and K2O were applied twice as splits at 45 and 90 days after planting. Turmeric was grown during August 2020 for 8 months in field conditions within 20–38 °C under irrigated conditions.

2.2. Estimation of macro and micronutrients

Turmeric rhizomes were collected within eight months of sowing (DAS) and subjected to the estimation of plant nutrients. For this, rhizome samples were autoclaved in the presence of H2O2 and HNO3 for 6 h and incubated in a microwave oven to convert into atomic elements. Then macro and micronutrients content of samples was measured spectrometerically [23].

2.3. Estimation of Mechanical Properties and Nutrients of Soil

The physicochemical parameters of the soil were analyzed before cultivation. After cultivation according to the method of Kachinsky [24] (Table 1), in which the soil samples taken for the analysis were agitated with sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP) to achieve complete dispersion of the particles. Carbon content was estimated as per Tyurin’s titrimetric method and organic matter content was converted using a 100:58 ratio, known as 1.72 conversion factor [25]. The available P and K contents extracted by mixing soil and soil ammonium carbonate in a 1:20 ratio [26]. The total NPK were analyzed by wet combustion by sulfuric acid [27,28]. Soil salinity was determined by water extraction methods in a 1:20 ratio, and salinity level was calculated as the dry residues of salt, including the cations and anions expressed as water-soluble salts [29].

2.4. Estimation of Enzyme Activities of Soil

The urease and invertase and catalase activities were measured as per Guo et al. [30] and Xaziev [31], respectively. For urease activity, 0.5 mL of tolune was added in 2.5 g soil and incubated for 15 min followed by addition of 2.5 mL of urea (10%) and 5 mL citrate buffer and 24 h’s at 38 °C. After incubation, in 1 mL of filtered mixture, 4 mL of sodium phenate and 3 mL of HClO were added. The absorbance was read spectophotometrically at 578 nm. The urease activity was taken as amount of urease that liberated NH4/g of soil/h. The catalase activity was considered as the amount of catalase that liberated oxygen/g soil, while invertase activity was taken as mg of glucose liberated/g soil.
For phosphatase activity estimation, 2 g of a soil sample was taken to which was added 5 mL CaCl2 (0.5 M) solution, and 1 mL of p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNP). The mixture was shaken, incubated at 30 °C for 1 h and centrifuged (5000 rpm for 5 min). The absorbance of the supernatant was measured spectrophotometerically at 440 nm. The amount of phosphatase was measured from a calibration curve prepared with 10–100 µg of pNP. Phosphatase activity was defined as the amount of phosphatase that converted 1 μg pNP/h/g of soil.

2.5. Statistical Analyses

The data was statistically analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by HSD and Tukey’s test. The effect of various treatments was measured as the magnitude of the p-value (p < 0.05 < 0.001).

3. Results

3.1. Measurement of Plant Nutrients

The data on the microelement content of the rhizome are given in Table 2. The lowest level of microelement content of rhizomes was indicated in the plant without mineral fertilizer control treatment. The T2 treatment applications of mineral fertilizer, NPK at the rate of 75:50:50 kg/ha, slightly improved rhizome microelement content. The T3 treatment resulted in a substantial improvement in mineral content. The T4 treatment gave the best results; it significantly enhanced rhizome the K (27%), Ca (43%), and P (54%) content over the control (Table 2).
All the treatments negatively affected the ultramicroelement contents (Table 3) in turmeric rhizome.
The lowest rhizome microelements, such as Zn, Cu, Fe, Cr, Mo and Mn content, were evident in the control (Table 2). The application of different combinations with NPK (T2 treatment), slightly improved rhizome Zn, Cr, Fe, Mo, Mn, Si and Cu contents compared to control. The microelements content of rhizome indicated that the T3 different combinations with NPK applications significantly improved rhizome Si, Zn, Mo, Mn, and Fe, contents as compared to control. Maximum content of micronutrient was recorded in T4 treatment (NPK + BZnFe). This treatment improved micronutrient content contents vis-à-vis low-rate of NPK with NPK and control.

3.2. Estimation of Physicochemical and Soil Nutrient Content

The analysis of soil physicochemical and nutrient content indicated a substantial change in the pH, EC, salinity, and alkalinity due to the application of various mineral fertilizers (Table 4). The use of mineral fertilizers greatly improved soil nutrients such as Cl, SO4, Ca, and Mg and enriched the nitrogen, organic matter, and carbon and C/N ratio (Table 4).
No application of mineral fertilizer (control) resulted in the lowest level of total NPK content, organic matter, K, and P in the soil (Table 5). T3 treatments (combination of NPK) and T4 treatment (combination of NPK = macro and micronutrients) greatly increased NPK and organic content, and active K and P. Treatment T3 enhanced total NPK content by 20%, 10%, and 6.0%, respectively and active P content by 10.7% vis-à-vis control. T4 treatment resulted in the best and highest improvements in contents (Table 5). The application of different combinations of mineral fertilizer reduced the Cl, SO4, ca and Mg contents of soil (Table 6).
The T4 treatment i.e., the combination of mineral fertilizers and macronutrients and micronutrients treatment greatly improved the soil enzyme activities. It resulted in 125.8% increase in urease enzyme (Figure 2A); 70.96% improvement in invertase (Figure 2B), 182% enhancement in catalase (Figure 2C), and 49.09% hike in catalase (Figure 2D) activities vis-à-vis control.
The result showed that application of different combinations of mineral fertilizer promoted the soil enzyme activities under field conditions over the control i.e., without fertilizer (T1). The maximum enzyme activities were observed in combination of mineral fertilizers NPK combined with B Zn and Fe (T4).
It was evident that all the combinations of mineral fertilizers exerted a positive impact on the activities of phosphatase, invertase, urease, and catalase in the soil. However, the NPK (T3) treatment resulted in significant improvement in the activities of these enzymes. Combination of micronutrients with mineral fertilizers, i.e., NPK + BZnFe applications (T4) showed more positive effects on the activities of these enzymes.

4. Discussion

Macronutrients and micronutrients are essential for plants, humans, and animals [23,32,33,34]. Nitrogen and phosphorus are major nutrient elements for plant growth and development [35,36,37,38]. The turmeric rhizome is one of the good sources of macronutrients, micronutrients, and ultramicronutrients. The resent study revealed the presence of copious amounts of macronutrients and micronutrients in turmeric under field experiments of Termez district of Uzbekistan.
Kulpapangkorn and Mai-Leang [9] reported an improvement in the content of the Mg, K, Ca, and of turmeric rhizomes when turmeric was sowing on gray soil in Okinawa, Japan. Ajayi et al. [39] reported that calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorous in ginger (Zingiber officinale) were increased. Mineral nutrients of turmeric were observed by [40]. The mineral content of turmeric in different countries have been studied by several scientists [41,42,43,44,45,46,47]. However, there are no reports on the analyses of macronutrients and micronutrients of turmeric cultivated in Uzbekistan. In the present research, the application of NPK (T3) alone or in combination with macro and micronutrients (T4) significantly improved nutrient contents of turmeric rhizome compared to the control without fertilizer. Similar findings have been reported by Yanthan et al. [48], they found significant improvement in NPK content of ginger rhizome following the application of NPK under field conditions. The application of NPK (T3) and NPK + BZnFe treatments (T4) significantly improves the Si, Zn, Mo, Mn, and Fe contents in turmeric rhizomes vis-à-vis control. An increase in the mineral content of rhizomes is due to the addition of mineral fertilizers which increase the availability and thus absorption of minerals. The improvement in Fe content in C. longa L. in fine soil (7.3%), slit soil (23.9), and clay soil (57.2%) and calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorous content in ginger (Zingiber officinale) have been reported due to mineral supply. Chemical fertilizer (NPK) improved mineral nutrients and the productivity of Curcuma longa L. [11,41]. The iron content of turmeric was the lowest in Ondo State, Nigeria [39]. The literature showed no studies on the analyses of macronutrients and microelements contents of C. longa L. sown in Uzbekistan.
The present study is first attempt to reveal the influence of various combinations of mineral fertilizers on agrochemical properties and soil enzyme activities under field conditions in Termez district, Uzbekistan. Several authors reported improvement in the nutrient contents in plants and soil due to addition of mineral fertilizers [18,42,48,49,50]. The present study revealed a significant improvement in nutrient content in turmeric and soil and enhanced soil enzyme activities. The effect of inorganic fertilizers on soil nutrients has been advocated by many researchers [51,52]. Dinesh et al. [53] found that total N contents in soil under rain-fed ginger were enhanced by chemical nutrient management. Srinivasan et al. [54] reported that application of higher doses of mineral fertilizer decreased the NPK and macro and micronutrients.
Turmeric is a crop that requires a very long gestation period of about 8 months. This long gestation period results in the exhaustion of soil nutrients, and hence turmeric cropping requires high inputs of mineral fertilizers [14]. Therefore, for higher yields of turmeric, good soil fertility with mineral fertilizers are desired [14]. Replenishment of soil fertility for turmeric cropping has been based on the addition of a wide range of mineral fertilizers [15]. Among the various mineral fertilizers, NPK, alone or in combination with macro and micronutrients provide the necessary elements for the good growth, quality, and yield of crops [16].
The application of mineral fertilizer and its doses positively impacts the yield of turmeric. Turmeric has higher nutritional requirements, especially for NPK fertilizers [14]. The appropriate combination and effective doses of essential elements can positively improve the yield and quality of turmeric [18]. Improving plant macronutrients and micronutrients through the application of mineral fertilizers combined with macro and micronutrients appears as the best and sustainable approach to promote the yield and nutrient contents in C. longa L. [20,21,22].
Urease, catalase, and intervase enzymes are essential soil enzymes causing the main soil nutrient changes. The improvement in the activities of these enzymes is due to the increased availability of various minerals in the soil as a result of the addition of mineral fertilizers. Many mineral ions such as Ca, Mg, Fe, etc., serve as cofactors or metal ions to activate enzymes, and therefore their availability will determine the degree of enzyme activity. The influence of mineral fertilizers on the activities of soil enzyme are reported by several researchers [20,41,44]. Reddy et al. [55] reported that application of mineral fertilizers in combination with macronutrients and microelements enhances soil enzyme activities under field conditions. Application of NPK (150:125:250) and microbial consortia (MC) comprising nitrogen fixers, P and Zn solubilizing PGPR, and Arka Actino plus (AAP) containing Streptomyces sp., as a biopesticide is known to improve the soil enzyme activities [56,57,58,59]. Use of Biostimulants and foliar application of fertilizer reduces the need for fertilizer [60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67]. However, the literature showed no studies on the analyses in soil enzyme activities, soil agrochemical, and chemical properties in cultivated turmeric in Uzbekistan.

5. Conclusions

The highest macro and micronutrient contents of turmeric were achieved when turmeric was cultivated under field conditions in Termez district, Uzbekistan soil. Different combined with NPK application (T3) and application of NPK in combination with macronutrient and micronutrients (T4) significantly increased the Mo, P, Mn, Ca, Zn, K, Si and Fe, content in C. longa L. rhizomes over the control under field conditions. These combinations also improved soil enzymes. Therefore the application of NPK mineral fertilizers combined with macro and micronutrients is suggested to improve the yield and nutrient contents in turmeric rhizomes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, writing an original draft, D.J.; Methodology, K.S., Y.E. and A.A.; Writing review and editing, R.Z.S., M.J.A. and S.H.A.; Formal analysis and writing—Review and editing, S.F. and S.D.; R.D. and Z.J. interpreted the data and edited the paper; Investigation, Y.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by Taif University for Researchers Supporting project, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia through project number TURSP-2020/83 and the Ministry of Innovational Development, Republic of Uzbekistan.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not Applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not Applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not Applicable.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge Taif University for Researchers Supporting Project number TURSP- 2020/83, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia and the colleagues at the Institute of Genetics and Plant Experimental Biology, Uzbekistan, for providing funds and necessary facilities.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Egamberdieva, D.; Jabborova, D. Medicinal plants of Uzbekistan and their traditional uses. In Vegetation of Central Asia and Environs; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 211–237. [Google Scholar]
  2. Jabborova, D.; Davranov, K.; Egamberdieva, D. Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties of medicinal plants. In Medically Important Plant Biomes: Source of Secondary Metabolites; Egamberdieva, D., Tiezzi, A., Eds.; Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.: Singapore, 2019; pp. 51–65. [Google Scholar]
  3. Egamberdieva, D.; Jabborova, D. Plant microbiome: The source for biologically active compounds. In Biodiversity and Biomedicine; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 1–9. [Google Scholar]
  4. Jabborova, D.; Annapurna, K.; Fayzullaeva, M.; Sulaymonov, K.; Kadirova, D.; Jabbarov, Z.; Sayyed, R.Z. Isolation and characterization of endophytic bacteria from ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Ann. Phytomed. 2020, 9, 116–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Mamarasulov, B.; Davranov, K.; Jabborova, D. Phytochemical, pharmacological and biological properties of Ajuga turkestanica (Rgl.) Brig (Lamiaceae). Ann. Phytomed. 2020, 9, 44–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Jabborova, D.; Enakiev, Y.; Sulaymanov, K.; Kadirova, D.; Ali, A.; Annapurna, K. Plant growth-promoting bacteria Bacillus subtilis promote growth and physiological parameters of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Plant Sci. Today 2021, 8, 66–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Velayhudan, K.C.; Muralidharan, V.K.; Amalraj, V.A.; Gautam, P.L.; Mandal, S.; Kumar, D. Curcuma Genetic Resources. Scientific Monograph №4; National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources: New Delhi, India, 1999; Volume 4, pp. 1–5. [Google Scholar]
  8. Krup, V.; Prakash, H.L.; Harini, A. Pharmacological activities of turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn): A review. J. Tradit. Med. Clin. Naturop. 2013, 2, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Kulpapangkorna, W.; Mai-leang, S. Effect of plant nutrition on turmeric production. Procedia Eng. 2012, 32, 166–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Balakrishnan, K.V. Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger. In Ginger-the Genus Zingiber’; Ravindran, P.N., Nirmal Babu, K., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005; pp. 391–468. [Google Scholar]
  11. Li, L.; Qin, S. Effect of organic fertilizer and mineral fertilizer on the tuber yield of Curcuma longa L. Chung Kuo Chung Tsa Chih. 1996, 21, 654–662. [Google Scholar]
  12. Ruby, A.J.; Kuttan, G.; Dinesh, B.K. Anti-tumour and antioxidant activity of natural curcuminoids. Cancer Lett. 1995, 94, 79–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Chavalittumrong, P.; Jirawattanapong, W. Variation of active constituents of Curcuma domestica rhizome at different age. Thai J. Pharm. Sci. 1992, 16, 165–177. [Google Scholar]
  14. Alori, E.T.; Aboyeji, C.M.; Dunsin, O.; Adegbite, K.A.; Aremu, C.O.; Bamiro, O.; Ejue, W.S.; Okunlola, F.O.; Adesola, O.O. MgO Fertilizer Sole and Combined with Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers: Effect on Soil Chemical Properties, Turmeric Performance, and Quality in a Tropical Alfisol”. Sci. World J. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Tomori, W.B.; Obijole, O.A.; Aiyesanmi, A.F. Evaluation of nutrient status of cropped and degraded soils—Research note. Niger. J. Soil Sci. 2006, 16, 178–180. [Google Scholar]
  16. Sanghamithre, V.K.; Menon, M.V. Effect of S, Ca and Mg on fresh rhizome yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). J. Trop. Agric. 2014, 52, 158–161. [Google Scholar]
  17. Qazi, M.A.; Iqbal, M.N.; Ashraf, M.; Khan, N.I.; Ahmad, R.; Umar, F.; Naeem, U.; Mughal, K.M.; Khalid, M.; Iqbal, Z. NPK requirements of turmeric for cultivation in Punjab. Pak. J. Sci. 2020, 72, 365. [Google Scholar]
  18. Srinivasan, V.; Thankamani, C.K.; Dinesh, R.; Kandiannan, K.; Zachariah, T.J.; Leela, N.K.; Hamza, S.; Shajina, O.; Ansha, O. Nutrient management systems in turmeric: Effects on soil quality, rhizome yield, and quality. Ind. Crops Prod. 2016, 85, 241–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Zhang, M.; Geng, Y.; Cao, G.; Zou, X.; Qi, X.; Stephano, M.F. Effect of magnesium fertilizer combined with straw return on nitrogen use efficiency. Agron. J. 2021, 113, 345–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Akamine, H.; Hossain, A.; Ishimine, Y.; Yogi, K.; Hokama, K.; Iraha, Y.; Aniya, Y. Effects of Application of N, P and K Alone Or In Combination on Growth, Yield And Curcumin Content of Turmeric (Curcuma Longa L.). Plant Prod. Sci. 2007, 10, 151–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. El-Hawaz, R.F.; Grace, M.H.; Janbey, A.; Lila, M.A.; Adelberg, J.W. In vitro mineral nutrition of Curcuma longa L. affects the production of volatile compounds in rhizomes after transfer to the greenhouse [published correction appears in BMC Plant Biol. 2018 Jul 17;18(1):148]. BMC Plant Biol. 2018, 18, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Nwokocha, C.C.; Mbagwu, J.S.C.; Olojede, A.O.; Ano, A.O. Mulching an arenic hapludult in southeastern nigeria: Effects on selected soil properties and rhizome yield of turmeric. Agro Sci. J. Trop. Agric. Food Environ. Ext. 2009, 8, 145–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Sarabekov, A.; Matchanov, A.; Gofurov, M.B.; Xamidova, G.; Maulyanov, S.; Babaev, B.; Jabborova, D. Element analysis of Helichrysum maracandicum collected in different regions of Uzbekistan. Plant Cell Biotechnol. Mol. Biol. 2021, 22, 53–59. [Google Scholar]
  24. Tursunov, L. Soil Physics. In Determination of the Mechanical Composition of Soils by the Kachinsky Method; National Unversity of Uzbekistan Press: Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 2010; p. 358. [Google Scholar]
  25. Soils. Determination of organic matter by the method Tyurin modified by CINAO. In Methods for Determination of the Organic Matter; GOST 26213-91, M; Publishing House of Standards: Minsk, Belarus, 2003; p. 11. [Google Scholar]
  26. Soils. Determination of Mobile Compounds of Phosphorus and Potassium by Machigin Method Modified by CINAO; GOST 26205-91, M; Publishing House of Standards: Minsk, Belarus, 2005; p. 10. [Google Scholar]
  27. GOST of Commonwealth of Independent States. Methods for Determining Total Phosphorus and Total Potassium; GOST 26261–84, M; Publishing House of Standards: Minsk, Belarus, 2005; pp. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
  28. GOST of Commonwealth of Independent States. Methods for Determination of Total Nitrogen; GOST 26107–84, M., Ed.; Publishing House of Standards: Minsk, Belarus, 2002; p. 9. [Google Scholar]
  29. Pancu, M.; Gautheyrou, J. Handbook pf Soil Analysis Mineralogical, Organic and Inorganic Methods; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany; New York, NY, USA, 2003; p. 993. [Google Scholar]
  30. Guo, H.; Yao, J.; Cai, M.; Qian, Y.; Guo, Y.; Richnow, H.H.; Ceccanti, B. Effects of petroleum contamination on soil microbial numbers, metabolic activity, and urease activity. Chemosphere 2012, 87, 1273–1280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Xaziev, F.X. Methods of Soil Enzymology; Publishing Nauka: Moscow, Russia, 2005; pp. 1–252. ISBN 5020339407. [Google Scholar]
  32. Egamberdieva, D.; Jabborova, D.; Berg, G. Synergistic interactions between Bradyrhizobium japonicum and the endophyte Stenotrophomonas rhizophila and their effects on growth and nodulation of soybean under salt stress. Plant Soil 2016, 405, 35–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Egamberdieva, D.; Wirth, S.; Jabborova, D.; Räsänen, L.A.; Liao, H. Coordination between Bradyrhizobium and Pseudomonas alleviates salt stress soybean through altering root system architecture. J. Plant Interact. 2017, 12, 100–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Egamberdieva, D.; Jabborova, D.; Wirth, S.; Pravej, A.; Alyemeni, M.N.; Parvaiz, A. Interaction of magnesium with nitrogen and phosphorus modulates symbiotic performance of soybean with Bradyrhizobium japonicum and its root architecture. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
  35. Jabborova, D.; Enakiev, Y.; Kakhramon, D.; Begmatov, S. Effect of coinoculation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Pseudomonas putida on root morph-architecture traits, nodulation, and growth of soybean in response to phosphorus supply under hydroponic conditions. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 2018, 24, 1004–1011. [Google Scholar]
  36. Sharma, S.B.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Trivedi, M.H.; Gobi, T. Phosphate solubilizing microbes: Sustainable approach for managing phosphorus deficiency in agricultural soils. SpringerPlus 2013, 2, 587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Sharma, S.; Sayyed, R.; Sonawane, M.; Trivedi, M.; Thivakaran, G. Neurospora sp SR8, a novel phosphate solubiliser from rhizosphere of soil of Sorghum in Kachh, Gujarat. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 2016, 54, 644–649. [Google Scholar]
  38. Jabborova, D.; Wirth, S.; Kannepalli, A.; Narimanov, A.; Desouky, S.; Davranov, K.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Enshasy, H.; AbdMalek, R.; Syed, A.; et al. Co-Inoculation of Rhizobacteria and Biochar Application Improves Growth and Nutrientsin Soybean and Enriches Soil Nutrients and Enzymes. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ajayi, O.B.; Akomolafe, S.F.; Akinyemi, F.T. Food value of two varieties of ginger (Zingiber officinale) commonly consumed in Nigeria. Int. Sch. Res. Not. 2013, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Hossain, M.A.; Ishimine, Y.; Akamine, H.; Motomura, K. Effects of Seed Rhizome Size on Growth and Yield of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Plant Prod. Sci. 2005, 8, 86–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Jabborova, D.; Choudhary, R.; Karunakaran, R.; Ercisli, S.; Ahlawat, J.; Sulaymanov, K.; Azimov, A.; Jabbarov, Z. The Chemical Element Composition of Turmeric Grown in Soil–Climate Conditions of Tashkent Region, Uzbekistan. Plants 2021, 10, 1426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Hossain, M.A.; Ishimine, Y.; Motomura, K.; Akamine, H. Effects of Planting Pattern and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Plant Prod. Sci. 2005, 8, 95–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Imoru, A.; Onibi, G.E.; Osho, I.B. Nutritional and Biochemical Compositions of Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn) Rhizome powder—A Promising Animal Feed Additive. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 2018, 9, 424–429. [Google Scholar]
  44. Jabborova, D.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Azimov, A.; Jabbarov, Z.; Matchanov, A.; Enakiev, Y.; Baazeem, A.; Sabagh, A.E.; Danish, S.; Datta, R. Impact of mineral fertilizers on mineral nutrients in the ginger rhizome and on soil enzymes activities and soil properties. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Obiajunwa, E.I.; Adebajo, A.C.; Omobuwajo, O.R. Essential and trace element contents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2002, 252, 473–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Ogunwandea, I.A.; Olawore, N.O. Heavy trace metals and macronutrients status in herbal plants of Nigeria. Food Chem. 2004, 85, 67–71. [Google Scholar]
  47. Al-Eed, M.A.; Assubaie, F.N.; El-Garawany, M.M.; El-Hamshary, H.; Eltayeb, Z.M. Determination of heavy metal levels in common spices. J. Appl. Sci. 2002, 17, 87–98. [Google Scholar]
  48. Yanthan, L.; Singh, A.K.; Singh, V.B. Effect of INM on yield, quality, and uptake of N., P and K by ginger. School Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University, Medziphema. 797106. Nagaland, India. Agropedology 2010, 20, 74–79. [Google Scholar]
  49. Jabborova, D.; Baboev, S.; Davranov, K.; Jabbarov, Z. Improvement of plant growth, nodulation, and yield of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) by microbiological preparations. J. Biol. Chem. Res. 2019, 36, 52–57. [Google Scholar]
  50. Monaco, S.; Hatch, D.J.; Sacco, D.; Bertora, C.; Grignani, C. Changes in chemical and biochemical soil properties induced by 11-yr repeated additions of different organic materials in maize-based forage systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2008, 40, 608–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Ferreras, L.; Gomez, E.; Toresani, S.; Firpo, I.; Rotondo, R. Effect of organic amendments on physical, chemical and biological properties in a horticultural soil. Bioresour. Technol. 2006, 97, 635–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. McDowell, W.H.; Magill, A.H.; Aitkenhead-Peterson, J.A.; Aber, J.D.; Merriam, J.L.; Kaushal, S.S. Effects of chronic nitrogen amendment on dissolved organic matter inorganic nitrogen in soil solution. For. Ecol. Manag. 2004, 196, 29–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Dinesh, R.; Srinivasan, V.; Hamza, S. Nutrition. In Zingiberaceae Crops-Present and Future; Singh, H.P., Parthasarathy, V.A., Kandiannan, K., Krishnamurthy, K.S., Eds.; Westville Publishing House: New Delhi, India, 2012; pp. 255–287. [Google Scholar]
  54. Srinivasan, V.; Thankamani, C.K.; Dinesh, R.; Kandiannan, K.; Hamza, S.; Leela, N.K.; Zachariah, T.J. Variations in soil properties, rhizome yield, and quality as influenced by different nutrient management schedules in rainfed ginger. Agric. Res. 2019, 8, 218–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Reddy, R.; VR, R.P. Bio-associative influence of secondary metabolites of turmeric on microbial and biochemical changes in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soils under various nutrient management practices. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2018, 7, 781–785. [Google Scholar]
  56. Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Naeem, M.; Danish, S.; Khan, M.J.; Fahad, S.; Datta, R.; Brtnicky, M.; Kintl, A.; Hussain, G.S.; El-Esawi, M.A. Effect of Cadmium-Tolerant Rhizo-bacteria on Growth Attributes and Chlorophyll Contents of Bitter Gourd under Cadmium Toxicity. Plants 2020, 9, 1386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Tahzeeb-ul-Hassan, M.; Abid, M.; Fahad, S.; Brtnicky, M.; Dokulilova, T.; Datta, R.; Danish, S. Potential role of compost mixed biochar with rhizobacteria in mitigating lead toxicity in spinach. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
  58. Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Naeem, M.; Danish, S.; Fahad, S.; Datta, R.; Abbas, M.; Rahi, A.A.; Brtnicky, M.; Holátko, J.; Tarar, Z.H.; et al. Alleviation of Cadmium Adverse Effects by Improving Nutrients Uptake in Bitter Gourd through Cadmium Tolerant Rhizobacteria. Environments 2020, 7, 54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Danish, S.; Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Fahad, S.; Saud, S.; Brtnicky, M.; Hammerschmiedt, T.; Datta, R. Drought Stress Alleviation by ACC Deaminase Producing Achromobacter xylosoxidans and Enterobacter cloacae, with and without Timber Waste Biochar in Maize. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Abbas, M.; Anwar, J.; Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Khan, R.I.; Saleem, M.; Rahi, A.A.; Danish, S.; Datta, R. Effect of Seaweed Extract on Productivity and Quality Attributes of Four Onion Cultivars. Horticulturae 2020, 6, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Izhar Shafi, M.; Adnan, M.; Fahad, S.; Wahid, F.; Khan, A.; Yue, Z.; Danish, S.; Zafar-ul-Hye, M.; Brtnicky, M.; Datta, R. Application of Single Superphosphate with Humic Acid Improves the Growth, Yield and Phosphorus Uptake of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Calcareous Soil. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Ullah, A.; Ali, M.; Shahzad, K.; Ahmad, F.; Iqbal, S.; Habib, M.; Rahman, M.; Ahmad, S.; Iqbal, M.; Danish, S.; et al. Impact of Seed Dressing and Soil Application of Potassium Humate on Cotton Plants Productivity and Fiber Quality. Plants 2020, 9, 1444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Zarei, T.; Danish, S. Effect of micronutrients foliar supplementation on the production and eminence of plum (Prunus domestica L.). Qual. Assur. Saf. Crop. Foods 2020, 12, 32–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Khan, M.J.; Muhammad, D.; Fahad, S.; Adnan, M.; Wahid, F.; Alamri, S.; Khan, F.; Dawar, K.M.; Irshad, I.; Danish, S.; et al. Phosphorus Nutrient Management through Synchronization of Application Methods and Rates in Wheat and Maize Crops. Plants 2020, 9, 1389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Basu, A.; Prasad, P.; Das, S.N.; Kalam, S.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Reddy, M.S.; El Enshasy, H. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) as Green Bioinoculants: Recent Developments, Constraints, and Prospects. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Hamid, B.; Zaman, M.; Farooq, S.; Fatima, S.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Baba, Z.A.; Sheikh, T.A.; Reddy, M.S.; Enshasy, H.E.; Gafur, A.; et al. Bacterial Plant Biostimulants: A Sustainable Way towards Improving Growth, Productivity, and Health of Crops. Sustainability 2021, 21, 2856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Moradzadeh, S.; Moghaddam, S.S.; Rahimi, A.; Pourakbar, L.; Sayyed, R.Z. Combined bio-chemical fertilizers, ameliorate agro-biochemical attributes of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.). Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 11399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sustainability 13 09437 g001 550
Figure 1. Map showing the location of the sampling sites in the Termez district, Surkhandarya region, Uzbekistan.
Figure 1. Map showing the location of the sampling sites in the Termez district, Surkhandarya region, Uzbekistan.
Sustainability 13 09437 g001
Sustainability 13 09437 g002 550
Figure 2. The influence of mineral fertilizers on the activities of soil (A) urease, (B) invertase, (C) catalase, and (D) phosphatase. Values are the average of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. Asterisks indicate significant differences in the values at * p < 0.05, p < 0.01 **, p < 0.001 ***).
Figure 2. The influence of mineral fertilizers on the activities of soil (A) urease, (B) invertase, (C) catalase, and (D) phosphatase. Values are the average of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. Asterisks indicate significant differences in the values at * p < 0.05, p < 0.01 **, p < 0.001 ***).
Sustainability 13 09437 g002
Table
Table 1. The mechanical composition of irrigated soil.
Table 1. The mechanical composition of irrigated soil.
Particle Size Distribution Physical Mud
Land use types1–0.250.25–0.10.1–0.050.05–0.010.01–0.0050.005–0.001<0.001<0.01
Cultivated land3.711.295.637.1912.4121.318.552.21
Table
Table 2. The effect of mineral fertilizers on macro and microelement contents of turmeric rhizomes.
Table 2. The effect of mineral fertilizers on macro and microelement contents of turmeric rhizomes.
ElementsTreatments
ControlN75P50K50N125P100K100N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe6
Macro-Elements (g/kg)
K18.31a19.82b23.34c22.26c
Ca14.40a15.30b20.59cd19.85*b
P5.41a5.81a8.33cd6.35b
Mg4.81a4.86a4.88a4.96b
Na1.50a1.50a1.51a1.52b
Micro-elements (mg/kg)
Fe121.57a123.87a163.22d274.93f
Mn59.18a60.11b81.56e63.43d
Zn4.30a5.17b9.74d17.32h
Cu2.69b2.50a1.88c2.81a
Cr0.72a0.98c1.03e1.15g
Mo0.06a0.06a0.07c0.08d
Si411.06b521.12d550.23g537.44f
Values are the mean of five replicates and were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test. Different letters indicate significant differences in the values at p < 0.05.
Table
Table 3. The effect of mineral fertilizers on ultra-microelement contents of turmeric rhizomes.
Table 3. The effect of mineral fertilizers on ultra-microelement contents of turmeric rhizomes.
Ultra-Microelements (mg/kg)Treatments
ControlN75P50K50N125P100K100N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe6
Li0.464a0.178b0.106a0.118a
Be0.004a0.004 a0.004a0.004a
V0.068a0.068a0.068a0.068a
Co0.037a0.037a0.038b0.037a
Ga0.198b0.192a0.199c0.140ad
Ge0.000a0.000a0.000a0.000a
Nb0.002a0.002a0.002a0.002a
Ag0.032a0.037c0.039c0.086f
Cd0.053a0.053a0.053a0.053a
In0.000a0.000a0.000 a0.000a
Sn0.055a0.054a0.055a0.055a
Sb0.003a0.003a0.003a0.003a
Cs0.001a0.001a0.001a0.000b
Ta0.000a0.000a 0.000a0.000a
W0.001a0.001a 0.001a0.001a
Re0.000a0.000a0.000a0.000a
Values are the average of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. The values at p < 0.05 of different letters indicate significant differences.
Table
Table 4. Physicochemical and nutrient properties of the soil before planting and after harvesting.
Table 4. Physicochemical and nutrient properties of the soil before planting and after harvesting.
pHEC
(ds/m)		Alkalinity (HCO3 mg/eq)Cl
(mg/
eq)		SO4
(mg/
eq)		Ca
(mg/eq)		 Mg
(mg/eq)		N-NO3 (mg/kg)Total
P2O5
(mg/
eq)		Total
K2O (mg/kg
eq)		N
(%)		Organic Matter (%)C
(%)		C/N Ratio
Before treatment8.05.470.361.122.6612.185.1489.100.1801.860.0941.6970.98410.4
After treatment7.74.820.012.093.9217.127.5132.4531.01.86351.602.321.35115.6
Values are the average of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. The values at p < 0.05 of different letters indicate significant differences.
Table
Table 5. The effect of mineral fertilizers on agrochemical properties of irrigated soil.
Table 5. The effect of mineral fertilizers on agrochemical properties of irrigated soil.
TreatmentsActive P and K (mg/kg)N-NO3, (mg/kg)Total (%)N,
(%)		Organic Matter (%) C,
(%)		C/N Ratio
P2O5K2OP2O5K2O
T1-Control31.3a121.54a10.88a0.160a0.83a0.194a3.85a2.24b11.7b
T2-N75P50K5032.0b123.77a17.99c0.190c0.85a0.203d4.21b2.45a11.8a
T3-N125P100K10040.0d132.50b28.55e 0.220e0.93d0.214g4.38d2.55d12.1e
T4-N100P175K75+ B3Zn6Fe642.0e152.40f32.45h0.260h0.95e0.211g4.68h2.72f12.9f
Values are the average of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. The values at p < 0.05 of different letters indicate significant differences.
Table
Table 6. The effect of mineral fertilizers on chemical properties of irrigated soil.
Table 6. The effect of mineral fertilizers on chemical properties of irrigated soil.
TreatmentsCO2 %AlkalinityClSO4CaMg
Total
HCO3, (%)		Total HCO3, (mg/eq)(%)(mg/eq)(%)(mg/eq)(%)(mg/eq)(%)(mg/eq)
Control8.25e0.014a0.33d0.008a1.26f0.200a2.66d0.140f30.00e6.25f0.014f
N75P50K506.01b0.012c0.28b0.008a1.21e0.28f2.14e0.13e28.77b6.01c0.012e
N125P100K1006.00b0.01e0.27c0.008a1.01b0.24e2.01c0.11d22.44a6.00c0.01b
N100P75K75 + B3Zn6Fe65.80d0.009f0.25a0.007c *0.95a0.200a1.98a0.090a *28.75b5.80a0.009a *
Values are the mean of five replicates analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test. The values at p < 0.05 of different letters indicate significant differences.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Jabborova, D.; Sulaymanov, K.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Alotaibi, S.H.; Enakiev, Y.; Azimov, A.; Jabbarov, Z.; Ansari, M.J.; Fahad, S.; Danish, S.; et al. Mineral Fertilizers Improves the Quality of Turmeric and Soil. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9437. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13169437

AMA Style

Jabborova D, Sulaymanov K, Sayyed RZ, Alotaibi SH, Enakiev Y, Azimov A, Jabbarov Z, Ansari MJ, Fahad S, Danish S, et al. Mineral Fertilizers Improves the Quality of Turmeric and Soil. Sustainability. 2021; 13(16):9437. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13169437

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jabborova, Dilfuza, Khurshid Sulaymanov, R. Z. Sayyed, Saad H. Alotaibi, Yuriy Enakiev, Abdulahat Azimov, Zafarjon Jabbarov, Mohammad Javed Ansari, Shah Fahad, Subhan Danish, and et al. 2021. "Mineral Fertilizers Improves the Quality of Turmeric and Soil" Sustainability 13, no. 16: 9437. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/su13169437

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop