Abandoned Croplands: Drivers and Secondary Succession Trajectories under Livestock Grazing in Communal Areas of South Africa

Abstract

Cropland abandonment has been happening in different parts of the world and is being driven by socio-economic, ecological, edaphic, and environmental factors. Most of the research focusing on drivers of cropland abandonment, succession trajectories, and responses to active restoration initiatives has been conducted in the republic of Nepal and regions such as Europe and America. In South Africa, the impact of cropland abandonment on household livelihoods, changes in vegetation and soil properties, and soil seed bank statuses have been conducted mainly in the Eastern Cape Province. The drivers of cropland abandonment in South Africa are like those observed in other countries, except for a few, which are country-specific such as poor support of communal farmers compared to their counterparts in the highly mechanised commercial farming sector. There is also a shift from low input cropping in the distant fields to high input cultivation in homestead gardens. Research results elsewhere suggest a woody growth suppressive effect of grazing, particularly average grazing intensities, being crucial in suppressing woody proliferation while high grazing intensities are detrimental to herbaceous species’ richness and promote woody species’ encroachment. A combination of fire and grazing alters the natural succession trajectory by promoting fire-tolerant species and arresting woody species. Similar to other countries, cropland abandonment is associated with colonisation by alien invasive species which are favoured by cropping legacies, such as altered soil levels of pH, Nitrogen, and phosphorus. Furthermore, limited moisture in semi-arid areas promotes the encroachment of indigenous woody species. Secondary succession in abandoned croplands can be manipulated for the benefit of livestock production in communal areas by introducing management strategies that will discourage encroachment by both invasive and indigenous woody species which lowers the grazing capacity. Furthermore, active restorative practices, such as reseeding with indigenous mid succession perennial grasses and legumes, will improve forage quality in abandoned croplands. Our understanding of succession trajectories under various unique disturbance regimes experienced in South Africa, such as communal grazing of abandoned croplands, compared to situations in other parts of the world is limited. Furthermore, the influence of other factors such as fire, soil fertility, and moisture needs to be understood.

1. Introduction

There is an increase in the abandonment of agricultural lands worldwide [1,2,3,4] and in South Africa [5,6,7]. Approximately, 1.47 million km² of agricultural land has been abandoned worldwide from the 1700s to 1992 [8]. In the former homelands of South Africa, annual rates of cropland abandonment from 1950 to 2010 ranged from 0.08–0.28% [6], and peak abandonment was observed between 1970 and 1990 [6]. This peak was attributed to the impact of the government policy of betterment planning which was characterized by the re-zoning of arable lands which resulted in fields being far away from homesteads. This discouraged aged farmers from walking long distances to plough and tend their crops as youths explored alternative income sources [6]. In addition, the alternating period of drought and floods experienced during the two decades decimated livestock, the source of draught power, and it resulted in feed shortage and disease outbreaks.

Agricultural land abandonment is differently conceptualised in various parts of the world, hence the various names in the literature. Deagrarianization is a term used to describe a general shift of rural livelihoods from being mostly agrarian to increased non-agrarian income sources over time [9]. In the rural Eastern Cape Province, income or livelihood sources have shifted from mainly agricultural sources to state social grants and remittances [10,11], which is partly attributed to youth not interested in farming [12] and some rural inhabitants migrating to urban areas in search of employment. Abandonment of cropping started even before the democratic government of 1994 which increased the amount of old age grants and expanded the categories of soil grants; Bembridge [10] reported a 52% reduction in maize production from 1918 to 1980 in the former Transkei region of the present Eastern Cape Province. In Africa, livelihood for the rural population is mainly anchored by agriculture, specifically crop and livestock production. Cropping occurs in family fields varying in size while ruminant livestock production is based on communal rangelands. Rangelands are normally interspersed between homesteads and cropping fields. The former Transkei part of the present Eastern Cape Province of South Africa has large tracts of abandoned agricultural land which were once cropping fields of some of the households [13] and most of them are no longer cultivated [14]. Andrews and Fox [15] and Connor and Mtwana [16] argue that abandonment of the fields is not a complete cessation of cropping but is a shift towards intensification where farmers use gardens adjacent to their homesteads to intercrop maize with other food crops. Agricultural land abandonment patterns and drivers vary around the world and in Africa where subsistence farming dominates the communal rural areas. In this review, we present an overview of cropland abandonment, its driving forces, and its consequences on herbaceous species composition, bush encroachment, and the impact of livestock grazing on secondary succession. Even though information on the patterns, drivers, and implications is widespread in the literature, it, however, focuses on Europe, America, and Nepal, among other countries. Few studies have been conducted in Africa and most of them have been conducted in South Africa focusing on the livelihood impact of cropping cessation. Cropland abandonment is large in South Africa and it warrants a review. Extensive research has been conducted on the drivers of abandonment; however, the successional impact of abandonment in communal areas characterised by livestock grazing is not clear. Knowledge of the vegetation changes in these abandoned cropping lands under continuous grazing, inherent in communal areas of South Africa, is important to inform management strategies of this transient land.

2. Definition of Abandonment

There is no standardised definition of agricultural land abandonment; however, a simple definition is the cessation of agricultural activities on a given surface of land [17]. The term agricultural land abandonment is inclusive of land previously used for crops, vegetables, fruit trees, and cultivated and natural pastures. Other agricultural land abandonment studies specifically focus on crops, hence terms such as cropland abandonment [6], formerly arable lands [18], and old arable lands or fields [19] are used. Others specify that for the land to qualify as abandoned, it should not be used for any other activity such as urbanisation or afforestation. Therefore, in the context of the rural areas of Africa wherein the cessation of cropping the land is used for grazing, the definition of cropland abandonment suffices. Baxter and Calvert [20] define cropland abandonment as a process of withdrawing cropland from active agricultural production without a plan for crop cultivation in the immediate future. The cessation is usually due to a decline in economic viability even after changes in farming practices [21]. Cessation results in natural succession wherein grasses, shrubs, and trees colonise former cropping lands; it can also result in land degradation. In the former homeland communal areas of South Africa, where the main agricultural activity involves cropping and livestock production, by default if the land is not used for cropping it turns into a grazing area. The same trend of abandoned cropping lands being used for grazing was also reported in Botswana [22]. Therefore, the definition of abandoned cropping land is land mainly used for grazing. The areas are sometimes also called old fields, fallow, or idle fields. Some have turned to be secondary grasslands [23].

3. Causes of Cropland Abandonment

Different factors drive cropland abandonment to varying extents across the globe and they range from socio-economic, edaphic, and climatic drivers [24,25]. These factors interact at various spatial and temporal scales [26] resulting in unviable land use practices [27]. Cropland abandonment happens when cropping becomes uneconomic [20] due to several factors such as a decline in soil fertility which necessitates higher fertiliser inputs. In addition, a move to the efficient and expensive mechanised agriculture due to family labour shortages [14] increases farming costs making it unprofitable. Unreliable rainfall [14,28], a phenomenon recently associated with climate change, leads to crop failures and thus discourages cropping. Individual household head attributes such as old age, increase in female-headed households, and off-site employment increase cropping abandonment [29].

The most decisive drivers of cropland abandonment in South Africa are drought, rainfall variability, and lack of interest in farming by youths [12] coupled with the decreased ability of old people to continue cropping the lands [6] (Figure 1). The long distance between fields and homesteads discourages cultivation by old people since access to the fields is mainly through walking. Old people will find it difficult to walk long distances and, on their arrival, will be engaged in the physical work in the fields. Furthermore, the high possibilities of unmanaged livestock destroying crops in poorly fenced fields deter cropping in communal areas [14]. Furthermore, investment in farming equipment and inputs versus returns is considered unfavourable hence the cessation of cropping [14]. The migration of males to mines for employment purposes also contributed to a decline in cropping [30]. The negative relationship between poor financial revenue and cessation of cropping was also observed in the Mediterranean Basin [31].

The high costs of fertilisers prevent its widescale use in communal areas, particularly in the larger fields which are distant from households. The large fields require large quantities of fertiliser which will be costly for smallholder, poorly-resourced, communal farmers who usually plant the less profitable rainfed maize. Fields closer to homes are sometimes called gardens and farmers usually plant vegetables and high-value cash crops with high returns, making fertilisation economic. Roberts et al. [32] noticed a significantly decreased fertility in soils further afield than those closer to homes; furthermore, Mandiringana et al. [33] attributes the low soil fertility status in smallholder, communal farmer fields to continuous cultivation of land without nutrient replenishment. Kakembo and Rowntree [34] cited reduced soil fertility as one of the reasons for cropping land abandonment in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.

4. Land Ownership and User Rights

The communal area land is under communal tenure and is held in trust by the state through the repealed 1936 Native Trust and Land Act and it thus leaves the inhabitants of the communal areas to be tenure insecure [35]. There are, therefore, no title deeds for the transfer of land to other farmers. The land is regulated by local traditional institutions under the leadership of chiefs [36] and access to the land is under customary norms and practices. Arable lands are allocated to individual households for exclusive use, while grazing lands are communally used [37]. If the land of a household is abandoned, permission to use must be sought from the owners since chiefs cannot force the transfer of land. Therefore, most of the abandoned land is left to undergo the natural succession process. Some former, irrigation-scheme land where owners had title deeds were once abandoned but have now been revived through joint ventures for pasture-based dairy farms [38]. Initiation of joint ventures on land without title deeds is not feasible, thus most of the households usually retain ownership of their abandoned fields, a situation also observed by Khanal and Watanabe [24] in the Nepal Himalaya. These lands would be left to undergo the natural secondary succession process, as observed in most communal areas in the Eastern Cape, which in the long run are encroached by wood species in conducive environments.

5. Economic Impacts Associated with Abandonment of Croplands

Large commercial farms dominate the South African agriculture economy. The high efficiency in production, due to mechanization, adoption of improved technologies, and affordable financing, has disadvantaged small-scale unmechanised farming systems that are characterized by high production costs [6] and low quality and quantity of crops produced per hectare. In addition, poor access to markets by smallholder farmers and intense competition from commercial farmers, which results in unfavourable prices, further push them out of farming. Even though the economy is one of the key drivers of land abandonment [39], the abandonment of cropland affects the agrarian society in South Africa in different ways. This can happen through changes in the ecosystem services and also the negative impact on food security. Similarly, [40] also highlighted that the abandonment of land depresses the economic status of the low-income areas through the destruction of ecosystem services expected from the land. Most of these South African arable lands are known to provide food for most communities [41] and their nonuse will accelerate poverty and food insecurity. Furthermore, cropping cessation will result in a decreased contribution to the gross domestic product, especially if some of these abandoned lands were used for export crops [42]. The failure to meet the local demand for grain has opened the country to international trade with the imported grain being cheaper due to respective countries subsiding their farmers and also being efficient in production. This results in locally-produced grain being expensive and thus the failure to get the market [29] to discourage continued production by smallholder farmers. Though there are several challenges to re-cultivating the abandoned lands, such as environmental and economic costs [43], in a study conducted in Spain on the economic effects of re-cultivating the abandoned land, Corbelle-Rico et al. [42] revealed there can be a higher income generated through re-cultivating the abandoned lands and if attempted in South Africa, with support from the government, it can improve the economic fortunes of the smallholder farmers.

6. Successional Trajectories

Secondary succession is a natural process in abandoned agricultural land that starts with short-life-span annual weeds and biennials, then perennials and grasses to short-life-cycle, fast-growing woody species [44]. It is also called passive restoration, while human intervention in the succession process through reseeding native grasses [45] and legumes [18,46], improving soil water retention, use of fire, grazing management, and controlling invasive species are considered active restoration. In passive restoration or natural succession, it takes a very long time for the species composition to be like that of natural communities [47]. In extreme cases, it sometimes fails to return to its original state. Multiple factors affect this complex succession process and they include soil fertility, topography, parent material, soil seed bank, soil moisture, and temperature regimes [48] (Figure 2 and Figure 3). Topography and parent material determine soil resource availability. South-facing sunny slopes are characterized by thinly scattered vegetation due to weaker soil development while north-facing shady slopes have thick dense vegetation due to nutrient-rich soils. Less steep slopes are high in species diversity due to a fast rate of secondary succession [49]. Variations in succession rate, species composition, and diversity were also observed in soil derived from different parent material. For example [50], poorer and sandier granite-based soils had higher rates of species recovery compared with more nutrient-rich basalt soils. The chemical and physical soil properties derived from the underlying parent material influence the soil microclimate and fertility. Propagule source and seed dispersal also affect secondary succession and the effect of distance to natural vegetation is critical [1]. Human-induced factors include utilisation and management after abandonment, such as grazing and fire [51].

On a large scale, climate is significant in affecting plant succession. In the tropics, natural succession strongly influences the succession trajectory towards the original state [52] while in semi-arid areas, such as South Africa, active restoration is more effective than natural succession [53]. Soil moisture affects the rate and direction of succession as it differentially affects the germination and growth of different plant species. A slow rate of secondary succession was observed in abandoned arable land in a semi-arid area of Zimbabwe [54]. Soil moisture and available phosphorus content decreased steadily with field age after their abandonment, whereas pools of organic matter, total and available nitrogen, potassium, and total phosphorus, increased with field age. The rate of succession is reported to be limited by water stress and propagule shortage [55]. Chambers et al. [56] observed that in low rainfall years, moisture supplementation in grass-reseeded, abandoned croplands in semi-arid areas increased seeded plant density and biomass. It is therefore vital that abandoned cropland restoration programmes aimed towards a final state of grazing land use should consider the average annual rainfall and the invasive species composition and abundance in the area [57]. The importance of soil moisture levels on the success of restoration initiatives was observed by Porensky et al. [57] who after terminating irrigation of seeded native grasses, saw that their abundance significantly decreased in successive years. Furthermore, Chang et al. [58] highlights that the natural recovery of plant communities in semi-arid areas is slow and therefore, recommends the need for properly managed revegetation initiatives.

Evaluation of the impact of cropland abandonment can be from either an ecological restoration or a degradation lens. In South Africa, cropland abandonment is considered a negative phenomenon as it causes food insecurity and reduces livelihood options [1,29] for rural people whose agriculture is their main source of income. In the long term, if abandoned agricultural land is not managed properly, there are negative effects on the ecosystem due to bush encroachment and alien species invasion.

The trajectory and speed of secondary succession depend on the severity of damage to vegetation and soil properties by previous cultivation practices [1]. Soil nutrients are depleted by inherent cultivation practices engaged by communal farmers and characterised by the lack of fertiliser application. Furthermore, the cultivation of crops reduces the soil seed bank through successive elimination of weeds [59]. Disturbances after abandonment, such as herbivory [60], fire, and fuelwood harvesting [61], will also influence the trajectory of the succession. In addition, on a broader scale, succession will be influenced by biophysical features while the proliferation of invasive species [62,63] also diverts the normal succession process. Soil type has a varied effect on succession depending on the stage of succession. The level of soil nutrients changes with time after abandonment. For example, phosphorus decreases while nitrogen was observed to increase with time [64].

6.1. Alien Species Invasion

Abandoned arable lands provide favourable conditions for invasive alien species [65] due to the poor seed bank of native species. Furthermore, the high seed productivity and dispersal by invasive species make them outcompete native plant species [26] for high nutrients from previous fertiliser applications. Alien invasive plants’ increase in an area reduces the native seed bank species’ richness, density, and diversity [66]. Invasive species which have colonised abandoned arable lands in the Eastern Cape include Acacia mearnsii [67,68], while in the drier areas indigenous shrubs such as Pteronia incana [69,70] have dominated. Cropping abandonment and the abandonment of pastoral practices have had some negative consequences, such as the penetration of invasive species. The increase in woody vegetation cover in the Eastern Cape has been attributed to arable land abandonment. Blair et al. [6] reported that woody vegetation has increased of up to 0.16% per annum in South Africa`s former homeland areas. Similarly, Shackleton et al. [5] observed a doubled hectarage of forests and woodlands from 1961 to 2009 in the coastal communal areas of the Eastern Cape. Njwaxu and Shackleton [71] also noted an increase in woody cover in relation to the age of abandonment.

6.2. Species Richness

Early stages of succession are characterised by low species richness because the first colonisers of abandoned lands are annuals and forbs [72]. Plant species that grow vigorously when there is less interspecific competition will quickly dominate in early succession, while late succession plants are drought tolerant and resilient to harsh conditions. Even though it has been widely reported that plant species richness increases with the age of abandonment [58,71,73], it however takes a very long time or fails to reach its original state. Forey and Dutoit [74] found that pristine grasslands had a higher species richness compared to nearby grasslands, which had been abandoned for more than a century. This trend of an increase in species richness with age of abandonment can be altered by environmental factors and human disturbances, such as grazing. Wehn et al. [75] contends that species richness declines with increasing time after abandonment in areas where shrub and tree encroachment dominate the succession. Soil fertility and moisture might favour the growth of woody alien invasive species, or in semi-arid areas, heavy grazing may infer competitive advantage to woody species and thus, ultimately, alter the increase in the species richness trend. Conversely, Gibson et al. [76] observed that sheep grazing increased species richness in abandoned arable lands in calcicolous grasslands. The climate seems to have some effect on species richness changes in abandoned croplands, with aridity not improving species richness as the period of abandonment increases. This was observed by Sebego [22] in Botswana’s semi-arid areas where similar species composition was found between the old fields and undisturbed areas. It is therefore critical to consider these factors when designing targeted management interventions in abandoned arable lands.

7. Factors Affecting Successional Trajectories

7.1. Grazing

Grazing intensity influences succession trajectory. High grazing intensity delayed the restoration of climax vegetation after land abandonment [72]. In humid areas abandoned fields were used for pasture for many years without bush creeping in, while low grazing intensity rapidly lead to bush encroachment. In semi-arid areas, in addition to low moisture, herbivory was found to prevent woody species proliferation, and only shrub pioneer species, such as Dichrostachys cinerea with evolved characteristics for colonising unoccupied areas, were observed [54]. The regeneration of tree seedlings depends on the grazing animals. Browsing herbivores, such as goats, which browse tree seedlings [77] thus reduce the growth of woody vegetation and therefore, influence succession trajectory. Uytvanck et al. [78] observed poor regeneration of tree seedlings in livestock-grazed, abandoned fields in the first two years of abandonment. Grazing is believed to have been influential in the development and maintenance of grasslands; therefore, it has an impact on secondary succession. Grazing resulted in an accelerated formation of a predominantly perennial species grassland community [79] in abandoned fields. Borovyk [80] observed that prolonged cessation of grazing after several years of grazing accelerated the development of the original plant population.

The presence of grazing herbivores in abandoned, arable lands increases species richness as it stops succession at a high species diversity stage [81]. Brinkert et al. [82] observed higher species richness and cover of perennial herbs, ruderals, and dwarf shrubs in grazed, abandoned, arable lands compared to the ungrazed ones. Brinkert et al. [82] concludes that grazing is crucial for the restoration of the original vegetation, which evolved with herbivory. Lasanta et al. [83] recommends that abandoned farmlands should be utilised for productive purposes, such as grazing, and the clearing of encroaching woody species should occur for the accrual of ecosystem services. This, therefore, means that a combination of grazing, browsing, and appropriate stocking rates should be used in abandoned croplands in South Africa. The stocking rate and the ratio of ruminant livestock species will depend on the level of wood species encroachment.

7.2. Fire

In addition to light grazing, the absence of fire, particularly in abandoned fertile fields surrounded by woody vegetation in humid environments, accelerates the succession to a state of increased woody cover [84]. Bobrovsky and Khanina [85] also found that the absence of fire after abandonment results in a homogenous high-density distribution of pioneer woody species, while frequent fires maintain the succession at weedy stages for decades. On the other hand, fire in the early stage of succession has been reported to divert the succession pattern by arresting the development towards woody vegetation resulting in dwarf shrubs [86]. Even though Novak et al. [84] concludes that prescribed burns benefit restoration by arresting bush encroachment and controlling invasive herbaceous species, they must be used with other strategies, such as introducing planting propagules for effective restoration. Therefore, the use of fire-tolerant grass species in reseeding and over-sowing initiatives will quicken the restoration process. The use of fire has decreased in communal areas of South Africa because of low fuel load due to reduced biomass caused by livestock grazing. This has resulted in increased shrub cover as compared to grass and trees [87]. Therefore, a combination of grazing and absence, or long fire frequencies, creates a successional stage dominated by shrubs.

7.3. Soil Fertility and Moisture

Several years of cultivation alter both chemical and physical properties of soil which directly influence the current vegetation species abundance [88]. Soil chemical properties have been observed to significantly influence plant species composition in old fields [89]. Both physical and chemical properties of soil affect the germination and growth of plants. Secondary succession is disturbed by soil chemistry after abandonment. Soil properties change, as vegetation is also changing, with time after cessation of cultivation. Limited effect of soil was observed at the early stages of succession. Heavy use of fertilisers in cropping results in relatively higher residual levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in young, abandoned cropping lands and they promote the growth of fast-growing, early-successional, alien invasive species [90,91], annual forbs, and grasses relative to perennials [92]. High electrical conductivity and low pH in young, abandoned fields inhibited native plant species and promoted undesirable invasive species and weedy plants [93,94].

Soil moisture affects the rate and direction of succession as it differentially affects the germination and growth of different plant species. A slow rate of secondary succession was observed in an abandoned arable land, a semi-arid area of Zimbabwe [54]. Soil moisture and available phosphorus content decreased steadily with field age after their abandonment, whereas pools of organic matter, total and available nitrogen, potassium, and total phosphorus, increased with field age.

7.4. Management Strategies for Livestock Production

The rate and direction of the passive revegetation process in secondary succession can be manipulated by managing plant diversity and species richness (adaptable species, e.g., to grazing, local environment, etc.). Active restoration processes should aim at directing the succession to a vegetation structure amenable to livestock production and enhanced ecosystem services. They include planting a mixture of mid-late successional native species, and overseeding legumes [18,95]. In the early successional stages, abandoned croplands are dominated by weedy annual grasses and forbs; local perennial grasses are few because their proportion in the soil seed bank is reduced by previous cultivation practices [48]. The success of these strategies largely depends on the soil properties, amount of rainfall received, and life form of the growing native species which will influence the interspecific competition.

Communal areas where agricultural cropping land abandonment is concentrated have ruminant livestock production as one of the livelihood sources; therefore, it is imperative to intervene in the secondary succession pattern towards the benefit of livestock production. Allowing the natural succession process to continue with minimal conscious intervention will result in negative environmental and grazing resource impacts such as woody species encroachment [96]. It is therefore critical to manage the abandoned arable land towards a stable vegetation state which favours multi-species ruminant livestock production. A balance of grazers and browsers is important to limit an increase in woody species, thus goats should be part of ruminants utilising abandoned arable lands [97]. Al-Rowaily et al. [98] emphasised the importance of managing abandoned agricultural fields to restore and improve them through promoting the growth of rangeland species adapted to that environment. Eszter [99] reported that grazing management directed vegetation changes towards secondary grassland rather than a low-grazing capacity, woody-dominated area.

8. Policy Implication

The current government policies and legislation are ineffective in preventing abandonment of cropping lands or facilitating sustainable land use changes. Rural development policies have been formulated to enhance agriculture productivity, and the objective to halt cropping cessation has been neglected. Much of the government support is focussed on irrigated cropping and home gardens, while rain-fed cropping support is limited to subsidised land preparation and planting. Other countries have now focussed on introducing different ways to prevent farmers from abandoning the croplands. For example, in the study conducted by Ito et al. [100] and Shoyama et al. [101], the Japanese government introduced a direct payment scheme with the aim to prevent farmers from abandoning the land. The scheme reaped its success as it was found to be effective and it deterred most of the farmers from abandoning the croplands, and this changed the economic status of the marginalized communities. Similar to Europe, subsidies to encourage large-scale abandoned cropland improvement through forage plant reseeding [102] can be adopted and modified to suit the local context. Supervision of cropland abandonment should be initiated by the government, where land which has become uneconomic to cultivate crops should be turned into properly managed grazing land. For fertile productive land, which is no longer used by owners, government and traditional leadership should facilitate use by other community members or other interested farmers. A policy should be developed to guide the sustainable management of these abandoned lands currently used for grazing.

9. Conclusions

Rangeland degradation through bush encroachment and an increase in low grazing value annual grass species is an inherent problem in communal rangelands of South Africa. Abandoned croplands are an addition to the grazing area in communal areas; however, failure to manage abandoned croplands has resulted in them being turned to shrublands and hence being of diminished grazing value. Appropriate management of these abandoned croplands, which have been converted to grazing for the benefit of communal livestock farmers, would be critical in increasing the carrying capacity of grazing lands. There is no evidence in the literature that drivers of cropland abandonment in South Africa have been curtailed, and cropping will likely resume soon, therefore strategies to direct the succession towards a mid-late perennial-species-rich grassland with minimum bush density are vital. Implementing proper grazing intensities and establishing active restoration projects are some of the initiatives to be pursued. A policy environment that limits further abandonment and guides targeted active restoration initiatives would assist in preventing a successional shift towards lower grazing capacities and diminished values of ecosystem services. For them to be successful, intervention strategies on abandoned croplands should consider the effects of soil properties, soil moisture, dominant surrounding native woody species, grazing, and fire on succession trajectory.