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Polymers, Volume 13, Issue 13 (July-1 2021) – 191 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): For the protection of metal materials in the marine environment, the main method is to cover the surface of the metal with an anti-corrosion coating. Corrosion inhibitors are also widely used because of their good anti-corrosion effect on metal. In this paper, the state evolutions of CeO2-GO(4:1)/EP coating during servicing in a simulated seawater solution with different concentrations (20%, 40%, 60%) were studied. EP coating, EP coating + corrosion inhibitor, and CeO2-GO(4:1)/EP coating + corrosion inhibitor were prepared for comparative study. This research lays a solid theoretical foundation for the application of cerium oxide-modified graphene oxide anticorrosive coating in marine engineering. View this paper.
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22 pages, 2858 KiB  
Article
Colorimetric Sensing of Amoxicillin Facilitated by Molecularly Imprinted Polymers
by Joseph W Lowdon, Hanne Diliën, Bart van Grinsven, Kasper Eersels and Thomas J. Cleij
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2221; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132221 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2949
Abstract
The scope of the presented research orientates itself towards the development of a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-based dye displacement assay for the colorimetric detection of the antibiotic amoxicillin in aqueous medium. With this in mind, the initial development of an MIP capable of [...] Read more.
The scope of the presented research orientates itself towards the development of a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-based dye displacement assay for the colorimetric detection of the antibiotic amoxicillin in aqueous medium. With this in mind, the initial development of an MIP capable of such a task sets focus on monolithic bulk polymerization to assess monomer/crosslinker combinations that have potential towards the binding of amoxicillin. The best performing composition (based on specificity and binding capacity) is utilized in the synthesis of MIP particles by emulsion polymerization, yielding particles that prove to be more homogenous in size and morphology compared to that of the crushed monolithic MIP, which is an essential trait when it comes to the accuracy of the resulting assay. The specificity and selectivity of the emulsion MIP proceeds to be highlighted, demonstrating a higher affinity towards amoxicillin compared to other compounds of the aminopenicillin class (ampicillin and cloxacillin). Conversion of the polymeric receptor is then undertaken, identifying a suitable dye for the displacement assay by means of binding experiments with malachite green, crystal violet, and mordant orange. Once identified, the optimal dye is then loaded onto the synthetic receptor, and the displaceability of the dye deduced by means of a dose response experiment. Alongside the sensitivity, the selectivity of the assay is scrutinized against cloxacillin and ampicillin. Yielding a dye displacement assay that can be used (semi-)quantitatively in a rapid manner. Full article
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20 pages, 9513 KiB  
Article
Valorization of Invasive Plants from Macaronesia as Filler Materials in the Production of Natural Fiber Composites by Rotational Molding
by Zaida Ortega, Francisco Romero, Rubén Paz, Luis Suárez, Antonio Nizardo Benítez and María Dolores Marrero
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2220; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132220 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2548
Abstract
This paper compares the mechanical properties of different natural fiber composites produced by rotational molding as a way of waste valorization from campaigns to control invasive plant species in Macaronesia. Rotomolded parts produced with polymeric matrices (polyethylene) and filled with up to 20% [...] Read more.
This paper compares the mechanical properties of different natural fiber composites produced by rotational molding as a way of waste valorization from campaigns to control invasive plant species in Macaronesia. Rotomolded parts produced with polymeric matrices (polyethylene) and filled with up to 20% by weight of cellulosic fibers obtained from Arundo donax L., Pennisetum setaceum, and Ricinus communis plants were characterized in terms of tensile, flexural, and impact strength. It was found that the sieving of natural fibers allowed for their introduction in higher loadings, from 10 (for un-sieved material) to 20%; fiber size greatly affected the mechanical properties of the final parts, although some combinations were proven not to reduce the mechanical properties of the neat resin. This study is a first approach to the valorization of residues obtained from periodic campaigns of the control of invasive species performed by public authorities, usually at the local level. It is important to highlight that the main objective of this research did not focus on economically profitable activity; instead, it was focused on the reduction of wastes to be disposed from ecosystem maintenance actions and the investment of potential income into preservation policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Fibers: High Performance Sustainable Materials)
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19 pages, 7172 KiB  
Article
Strength and Biocompatibility of Heparin-Based Calcium Phosphate Cement Grafted with Ferulic Acid
by Kai-Chi Chang, Jian-Chih Chen, I-Tse Cheng, Ssu-Meng Haung, Shih-Ming Liu, Chia-Ling Ko, Ying-Sui Sun, Chi-Jen Shih and Wen-Cheng Chen
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2219; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132219 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2103
Abstract
The biomimetic synthesis of carbonated apatites by biomolecule-based templates is a promising way for broadening apatite applications in bone tissue regeneration. In this work, heparin was used as an organic template to prepare uniform carbonate-based apatite nanorods (CHA) and graft ferulic acid (F-CHA) [...] Read more.
The biomimetic synthesis of carbonated apatites by biomolecule-based templates is a promising way for broadening apatite applications in bone tissue regeneration. In this work, heparin was used as an organic template to prepare uniform carbonate-based apatite nanorods (CHA) and graft ferulic acid (F-CHA) for enhanced bone mineralization. Next, by combining calcium phosphate cement (CPC) with different F-CHA/CPC ratios, a new type of injectable bone cement combined with F-CHA bioactive apatite was developed (CPC + F-CHA). The physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and mineralization potential of the CPC + F-CHA composites were determined in vitro. The experimental results confirmed the preparation of highly biocompatible CHA and the compatibility of F-CHA with CPC. Although CPC + F-CHA composites with F-CHA (2.5 wt%, 5 wt%, and 10 wt%) showed a significant reduction in compressive strength (CS), compositing CPC with 10 wt% F-CHA yielded a CS suitable for orthopedic repair (CS still larger than 30 MPa). Spectroscopic and phase analyses revealed that the phase of the hydrothermally synthesized CHA product was not modified by the heparin template. Injection and disintegration tests indicated that the CPC + F-CHA composites have good biocompatibility even at 10 wt% F-CHA. D1 osteoprogenitor cells were cultured with the composites for 7 days in vitro, and the CPC + 10%F-CHA group demonstrated significantly promoted cell mineralization compared with other groups. Given these results, the use of over 10% F-CHA in CPC composites should be avoided if the latter is to be applied to load-bearing areas. A stress-shielding device may also be recommended to stabilize these areas. These newly developed biocompatible CPC + F-CHA have great potential as osteoconductive bone fillers for bone tissue engineering. Full article
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17 pages, 5953 KiB  
Article
A Morphology-Based Model to Describe the Low-Temperature Impact Behaviour of Rubber-Toughened Polypropylene
by Rudy Deblieck, Klaas Remerie, Winke Van den Fonteyne and Mark Boerakker
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13132218 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2432
Abstract
The roles of the rubber particle size, the rubber particle size distribution and the constitutive behaviour of the isotactic polypropylene matrix have been studied by combining the Lazerri–Bucknall energy criterion for cavitation with the Van der Sanden–Meier–Tervoort ligament model adapted for impact conditions. [...] Read more.
The roles of the rubber particle size, the rubber particle size distribution and the constitutive behaviour of the isotactic polypropylene matrix have been studied by combining the Lazerri–Bucknall energy criterion for cavitation with the Van der Sanden–Meier–Tervoort ligament model adapted for impact conditions. It is concluded that an optimised morphology offers great potential to achieve enhanced mechanical properties with far less rubber and hence achieve a superior stiffness/toughness/processing balance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals in Polymers Revealed by Non-destructive Methods)
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14 pages, 5749 KiB  
Article
Design of Thermal Insulation Materials with Different Geometries of Channels
by Daniela Șova, Mariana Domnica Stanciu and Sergiu Valeriu Georgescu
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2217; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132217 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2419
Abstract
Investigating the large number of various materials now available, some materials scientists promoted a method of combining existing materials with geometric features. By studying natural materials, the performance of simple constituent materials is improved by manipulating their internal geometry; as such, any base [...] Read more.
Investigating the large number of various materials now available, some materials scientists promoted a method of combining existing materials with geometric features. By studying natural materials, the performance of simple constituent materials is improved by manipulating their internal geometry; as such, any base material can be used by performing millimeter-scale air channels. The porous structure obtained utilizes the low thermal conductivity of the gas in the pores. At the same time, heat radiation and gas convection is hindered by the solid structure. The solution that was proposed in this research for obtaining a material with porous structure consisted in perforating extruded polystyrene (XPS) panels, as base material. Perforation was performed horizontally and at an angle of 45 degrees related to the face panel. The method is simple and cost-effective. Perforated and simple XPS panels were subjected to three different temperature regimes in order to measure the thermal conductivity. There was an increase in thermal conductivity with the increase in average temperature in all studied cases. The presence of air channels reduced the thermal conductivity of the perforated panels. The reduction was more significant at the panels with inclined channels. The differences between the thermal conductivity of simple XPS and perforated XPS panels are small, but the latter can be improved by increasing the number of channels and the air channels’ diameter. Additionally, the higher the thermal conductivity of the base material, the more significant is the presence of the channels, reducing the effective thermal conductivity. A base material with low emissivity may also reduce the thermal conductivity. Full article
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17 pages, 8250 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation on the Buckling Capacity of Angle Steel Strengthened at Both Legs Using VaRTM-Processed Unbonded CFRP Laminates
by Fengky Satria Yoresta, Phan Viet Nhut, Daiki Nakamoto and Yukihiro Matsumoto
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2216; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132216 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2604
Abstract
Strengthening steel structures by using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates showed a growth trend in the last several years. A similar strengthening technique, known as adhesive bonding, has also been adopted. This paper presented a promising alternative for strengthening steel members against [...] Read more.
Strengthening steel structures by using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates showed a growth trend in the last several years. A similar strengthening technique, known as adhesive bonding, has also been adopted. This paper presented a promising alternative for strengthening steel members against buckling by using vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VaRTM)-processed unbonded CFRP laminates. A total of thirteen slender angle steel members (L65x6), including two control specimens, were prepared and experimentally tested. The specimens were strengthened only at both legs and were allowed to buckle on their weak axes. The test showed that the unbonded CFRP strengthening successfully increased the buckling capacity of the angle steel. The strengthening effect ranged from 7.12% to 69.13%, depending on various parameters (i.e., number of CFRP layers, CFRP length, and angle steel’s slenderness ratio). Flexural stiffness of the CFRP governed the failure modes in terms of location of plastic hinge and direction of buckling curvature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for Structural Applications)
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12 pages, 631 KiB  
Article
New Aspects of Degradation in Silicone Rubber under UVA and UVB Irradiation: A Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Study
by Zheng Wang, Libing Qian, Xiangyang Peng, Zhen Huang, Yue Yang, Chunqing He and Pengfei Fang
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2215; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132215 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3038
Abstract
In this paper, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) were used to probe the changes of oligomers and the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) network in silicone rubber, after different durations of UVA/UVB irradiation. At the early stage (<300 h) of UVA/UVB [...] Read more.
In this paper, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) were used to probe the changes of oligomers and the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) network in silicone rubber, after different durations of UVA/UVB irradiation. At the early stage (<300 h) of UVA/UVB irradiation, the concentration of D4-D9 decreases. The o-Ps intensity of the extracted silicone rubber increases in the stage after UVB irradiation. These results indicate the crosslinking of oligomers into the PDMS network. After a long duration (>300 h) of UVB irradiation, D4 was generated and the lifetime of τ3 also increased, indicating the rupture of the Si-O bond in the PDMS network. These two aging processes were termed the post curing process and the chain session process. The new finding was that UVA could only induce the post curing process; UVB causes the rupture of the chemical bond in silicone rubber. Photons of UVB could break the C-H bond, and then trigger the backbiting decomposition of PDMS, breaking the Si-O bond, while the photons of UVA cannot. The fact that D4 was generated after UVB irradiation can be used to evaluate the UVB stability of silicone rubber in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers III)
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17 pages, 21042 KiB  
Article
The Effect of WS2 Nanosheets on the Non-Isothermal Cold- and Melt-Crystallization Kinetics of Poly(l-lactic acid) Nanocomposites
by Mohammed Naffakh, Pablo Rica, Carmen Moya-Lopez, José Antonio Castro-Osma, Carlos Alonso-Moreno and Diego A. Moreno
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2214; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132214 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1854
Abstract
In the present work, hybrid nanocomposite materials were obtained by a solution blending of poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) and layered transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) based on tungsten disulfide nanosheets (2D-WS2) as a filler, varying its content between 0 and 1 wt%. [...] Read more.
In the present work, hybrid nanocomposite materials were obtained by a solution blending of poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) and layered transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) based on tungsten disulfide nanosheets (2D-WS2) as a filler, varying its content between 0 and 1 wt%. The non-isothermal cold- and melt-crystallization and melting behavior of PLLA/2D-WS2 were investigated. The overall crystallization rate, final crystallinity, and subsequent melting behavior of PLLA were controlled by both the incorporation of 2D-WS2 and variation of the cooling/heating rates. In particular, the analysis of the cold-crystallization behavior of the PLLA matrix showed that the crystallization rate of PLLA was reduced after nanosheet incorporation. Unexpectedly for polymer nanocomposites, a drastic change from retardation to promotion of crystallization was observed with increasing the nanosheet content, while the melt-crystallization mechanism of PLLA remained unchanged. On the other hand, the double-melting peaks, mainly derived from melting–recrystallization–melting processes upon heating, and their dynamic behavior were coherent with the effect of 2D-WS2 involved in the crystallization of PLLA. Therefore, the results of the present study offer a new perspective for the potential of PLLA/hybrid nanocomposites in targeted applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inorganic-Nanoparticle Modified Polymers)
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12 pages, 5594 KiB  
Article
Natural Rubber-TiO2 Nanocomposite Film for Triboelectric Nanogenerator Application
by Weeraya Bunriw, Viyada Harnchana, Chalathorn Chanthad and Van Ngoc Huynh
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2213; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132213 - 05 Jul 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4986
Abstract
In this research, natural rubber (NR)-TiO2 nanocomposites were developed for triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) application to harvest mechanical energy into electrical energy. Rutile TiO2 nanoparticles were used as fillers in NR material to improve dielectric properties so as to enhance the energy [...] Read more.
In this research, natural rubber (NR)-TiO2 nanocomposites were developed for triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) application to harvest mechanical energy into electrical energy. Rutile TiO2 nanoparticles were used as fillers in NR material to improve dielectric properties so as to enhance the energy conversion performance of the NR composite TENG. The effect of filler concentration on TENG performance of the NR-TiO2 composites was investigated. In addition, ball-milling method was employed to reduce the agglomeration of TiO2 nanoparticles in order to improve their dispersion in the NR film. It was found that the TENG performance was significantly enhanced due to the increased dielectric constant of the NR-TiO2 composite films fabricated from the ball-milled TiO2. The TENG, fabricated from the NR-TiO2 composite using 24 h ball-milled TiO2 at 0.5%wt, delivered the highest power density of 237 mW/m2, which was almost four times higher than that of pristine NR TENG. Furthermore, the applications of the fabricated NR-TiO2 TENG as a power source to operate portable electronics devices were also demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials in Sensors, Actuators and Energy Conversion)
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16 pages, 3198 KiB  
Article
X-ray Shielding, Mechanical, Physical, and Water Absorption Properties of Wood/PVC Composites Containing Bismuth Oxide
by Worawat Poltabtim, Ekachai Wimolmala, Teerasak Markpin, Narongrit Sombatsompop, Vichai Rosarpitak and Kiadtisak Saenboonruang
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2212; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132212 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3452
Abstract
The potential utilization of wood/polyvinyl chloride (WPVC) composites containing an X-ray protective filler, namely bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) particles, was investigated as novel, safe, and environmentally friendly X-ray shielding materials. The wood and Bi2O3 contents used in [...] Read more.
The potential utilization of wood/polyvinyl chloride (WPVC) composites containing an X-ray protective filler, namely bismuth oxide (Bi2O3) particles, was investigated as novel, safe, and environmentally friendly X-ray shielding materials. The wood and Bi2O3 contents used in this work varied from 20 to 40 parts per hundred parts of PVC by weight (pph) and from 0 to 25, 50, 75, and 100 pph, respectively. The study considered X-ray shielding, mechanical, density, water absorption, and morphological properties. The results showed that the overall X-ray shielding parameters, namely the linear attenuation coefficient (µ), mass attenuation coefficient (µm), and lead equivalent thickness (Pbeq), of the WPVC composites increased with increasing Bi2O3 contents but slightly decreased at higher wood contents (40 pph). Furthermore, comparative Pbeq values between the wood/PVC composites and similar commercial X-ray shielding boards indicated that the recommended Bi2O3 contents for the 20 pph (40 ph) wood/PVC composites were 35, 85, and 40 pph (40, 100, and 45 pph) for the attenuation of 60, 100, and 150-kV X-rays, respectively. In addition, the increased Bi2O3 contents in the WPVC composites enhanced the Izod impact strength, hardness (Shore D), and density, but reduced water absorption. On the other hand, the increased wood contents increased the impact strength, hardness (Shore D), and water absorption but lowered the density of the composites. The overall results suggested that the developed WPVC composites had great potential to be used as effective X-ray shielding materials with Bi2O3 acting as a suitable X-ray protective filler. Full article
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13 pages, 1397 KiB  
Article
Hollow Fiber Polyimide Membranes Prepared in a Triple Orifice Spinneret: Effect of a Reduced Water Activity in the Bore Fluid on the Gas Separation Performance
by Paola Bernardo, Franco Tasselli and Gabriele Clarizia
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2211; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132211 - 04 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1902
Abstract
Polyimide-based hollow fibers were spun using a triple orifice spinneret in order to apply them in gas separation. The membrane structure was tailored producing a porous external layer and a thin internal skin layer, that controlled the gas transport. The measurement of gas [...] Read more.
Polyimide-based hollow fibers were spun using a triple orifice spinneret in order to apply them in gas separation. The membrane structure was tailored producing a porous external layer and a thin internal skin layer, that controlled the gas transport. The measurement of gas permeation rates and the morphological analysis were combined to obtain information on the performance of the membranes. The aim was to tune the inner top layer and investigate the role of the bore fluid on the gas permeation properties of the membranes. The bore fluid composition was explored by using water mixtures containing the solvent used for preparing the dope solution or a salt in order to reduce the water activity in the inner coagulant, but also a low amount of a crosslinker for improving the gas selectivity. The change of the dope flow-rate was also analyzed. At moderate dope flow-rates, the use of a saline water solution as bore fluid is more effective in enhancing the membrane gas selectivity with respect to a bore fluid containing certain amounts of solvent. This option represents a green approach for the preparation of the membrane. The behavior of the prepared hollow fibers over time (physical aging) in gas permeation was discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Poly- and Nano-Based Membranes in Separation Processes)
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11 pages, 773 KiB  
Article
Recycling of Wastes Plastics and Tires from Automotive Industry
by Iveta Čabalová, Aleš Ház, Jozef Krilek, Tatiana Bubeníková, Ján Melicherčík and Tomáš Kuvik
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2210; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132210 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4536
Abstract
Waste tires (granulate) and selected plastics from the automotive industry were evaluated by using the tertiary (pyrolysis) and quaternary (calorimetry) recovering. Pyrolysis is proving to be an environmentally friendly alternative to incineration and inefficient landfilling. Currently, the main challenges for pyrolysis of plastic [...] Read more.
Waste tires (granulate) and selected plastics from the automotive industry were evaluated by using the tertiary (pyrolysis) and quaternary (calorimetry) recovering. Pyrolysis is proving to be an environmentally friendly alternative to incineration and inefficient landfilling. Currently, the main challenges for pyrolysis of plastic waste are unavailability and inconsistent quality of feedstock, inefficient and hence costly sorting, and last but not least insufficient regulations around plastic waste management. Waste plastics and tire materials were characterized by TG/DTG analysis, Py-GC/MS analysis and calorimetry. TG analysis of the investigated materials gives the typical decomposition curves of synthetic polymers. The tested samples had the highest rate of weight loss process in the temperature range from 375 °C to 480 °C. Analytical pyrolysis of the tested polymers provided information on a wide variety of organic compounds that were released upon thermal loading of these materials without access to oxygen. Analytical pyrolysis offers valuable information on the spectrum of degradation products and their potential uses. Based on the results of calorimetry, it can be stated that the determined calorific value of selected plastic and rubber materials was ranging from 26.261 to 45.245 MJ/kg depending on the ash content and its composition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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12 pages, 7060 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Nanoscale Oxide Textured Surfaces on Polymers
by Barun K. Barick, Neta Shomrat, Uri Green, Zohar Katzman and Tamar Segal-Peretz
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2209; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132209 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2293
Abstract
Nanoscale textured surfaces play an important role in creating antibacterial surfaces, broadband anti-reflective properties, and super-hydrophobicity in many technological systems. Creating nanoscale oxide textures on polymer substrates for applications such as ophthalmic lenses and flexible electronics imposes additional challenges over conventional nanofabrication processes [...] Read more.
Nanoscale textured surfaces play an important role in creating antibacterial surfaces, broadband anti-reflective properties, and super-hydrophobicity in many technological systems. Creating nanoscale oxide textures on polymer substrates for applications such as ophthalmic lenses and flexible electronics imposes additional challenges over conventional nanofabrication processes since polymer substrates are typically temperature-sensitive and chemically reactive. In this study, we investigated and developed nanofabrication methodologies to create highly ordered oxide nanostructures on top of polymer substrates without any lithography process. We developed suitable block copolymer self-assembly, sequential infiltration synthesis (SIS), and reactive ion etching (RIE) for processes on polymer substrates. Importantly, to prevent damage to the temperature-sensitive polymer and polymer/oxide interface, we developed the process to be entirely performed at low temperatures, that is, below 80 °C, using a combination of UV crosslinking, solvent annealing, and modified SIS and RIE processes. In addition, we developed a substrate passivation process to overcome reactivity between the polymer substrate and the SIS precursors as well as a high precision RIE process to enable deep etching into the thermally insulated substrate. These methodologies widen the possibilities of nanofabrication on polymers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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19 pages, 3212 KiB  
Article
Mannose-Modified Chitosan Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Microspheres Act as a Mannose Receptor-Mediated Delivery System Enhancing the Immune Response
by Haibo Feng, Xiaonong Yang, Linzi Zhang, Qianqian Liu, Yangyang Feng, Daiyan Wu, Yunjie Liu and Jie Yang
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2208; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132208 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2873
Abstract
The mannose receptor (MAN-R)-targeted delivery system is commonly used to deliver antigens to macrophages or immature dendritic cells (DCs) to promote the efficiency of antigen presentation. To maximize the enhancement effects of chitosan (CS) and induce an efficient humoral and cellular immune response [...] Read more.
The mannose receptor (MAN-R)-targeted delivery system is commonly used to deliver antigens to macrophages or immature dendritic cells (DCs) to promote the efficiency of antigen presentation. To maximize the enhancement effects of chitosan (CS) and induce an efficient humoral and cellular immune response against an antigen, we encapsulated ovalbumin (OVA) in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres (MPs) and conjugated it with MAN-modified CS to obtain MAN-R-targeting nano-MPs (MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs). The physicochemical properties, drug loading rate, and immunomodulation activity of MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs were evaluated. In vitro, MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs (80 μg mL−1) could enhance the proliferation of DCs and increase their phagocytic efficiency. In vivo, MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs significantly increased the ratio of CD3+CD4+/CD3+CD8+ T cells, increased CD80+, CD86+, and MHC II expression in DCs, and improved OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, and IgG2b antibodies. Moreover, MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs promoted cytokine (IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-6) production in mice. Taken together, our results show that MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs may act by activating the T cells to initiate an immune response by promoting the maturation of dendritic cells and improving their antigen presentation efficiency. The current study provides a basis for the use of MAN-CS-OVA-PLGA-MPs as an antigen and adjuvant delivery system targeting the MAN-R on the surface of macrophages and dendritic cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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23 pages, 21295 KiB  
Article
Biomethane Yield, Physicochemical Structures, and Microbial Community Characteristics of Corn Stover Pretreated by Urea Combined with Mild Temperature Hydrotherm
by Yao Lu, Hairong Yuan, Xiaoyu Zuo, Yanqing Chang and Xiujin Li
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2207; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132207 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2046
Abstract
The corn stover (CS)’s compact structure makes it challenging for microorganisms to use in anaerobic digestion (AD). Therefore, improving CS biodegradability has become a key focus in AD studies. Methods are being targeted at the pretreatment of CS, combining advanced urea with mild [...] Read more.
The corn stover (CS)’s compact structure makes it challenging for microorganisms to use in anaerobic digestion (AD). Therefore, improving CS biodegradability has become a key focus in AD studies. Methods are being targeted at the pretreatment of CS, combining advanced urea with mild temperature hydrotherm pretreatment to study its effect on promoting the AD process of CS. The biomethane yield, physicochemical structure, and microbial community characteristics were investigated. CS samples were assigned into groups differed by a range of pretreatment times (from 24 to 96 h) and set at a temperature of 50 °C with a 2% urea addition. Results revealed that the 72-h group obtained the highest biomethane yield of 205 mL/g VS−1, volatile solid (VS) and total solid (TS) removal rates of 69.3% and 47.7%, which were 36.7%, 25.3% and 27.5% higher than those of untreated one, respectively. After conducting several analyses, results confirmed the pretreatment as a method for altering CS microstructures benefits biomethane production. The most resounding differences between pretreated and untreated groups were observed within a microbial community, an integral factor for improved AD performance. This study serves to confirm that this specific pretreatment is an effective method for enhancing biomethane production in CS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Conversion and Green Chemistry in Polymer Science)
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15 pages, 20705 KiB  
Article
Electrohydrodynamic Processing of PVP-Doped Kraft Lignin Micro- and Nano-Structures and Application of Electrospun Nanofiber Templates to Produce Oleogels
by José F. Rubio-Valle, M. C. Sánchez, Concepción Valencia, José E. Martín-Alfonso and José M. Franco
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132206 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2696
Abstract
The present work focuses on the development of lignin micro- and nano-structures obtained by means of electrohydrodynamic techniques aimed to be potentially applicable as thickening or structuring agents in vegetable oils. The micro- and nano-structures used were mainly composed of eucalyptus kraft lignin [...] Read more.
The present work focuses on the development of lignin micro- and nano-structures obtained by means of electrohydrodynamic techniques aimed to be potentially applicable as thickening or structuring agents in vegetable oils. The micro- and nano-structures used were mainly composed of eucalyptus kraft lignin (EKL), which were doped to some extent with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). EKL/PVP solutions were prepared at different concentrations (10–40 wt.%) and EKL:PVP ratios (95:5–100:0) in N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and further physico-chemically and rheologically characterized. Electrosprayed micro-sized particles were obtained from solutions with low EKL/PVP concentrations (10 and 20 wt.%) and/or high EKL:PVP ratios, whereas beaded nanofiber mats were produced by increasing the solution concentration and/or decreasing EKL:PVP ratio, as a consequence of improved extensional viscoelastic properties. EKL/PVP electrospun nanofibers were able to form oleogels by simply dispersing them into castor oil at nanofiber concentrations higher than 15 wt.%. The rheological properties of these oleogels were assessed by means of small-amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) and viscous flow tests. The values of SAOS functions and viscosity depended on both the nanofiber concentration and the morphology of nanofiber templates and resemble those exhibited by commercial lubricating greases made from traditional metallic soaps and mineral oils. Full article
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11 pages, 5863 KiB  
Article
Laboratory Study of Deformation Behaviour of Two New Reinforcing Polymeric TSLs and Their Potential Application in Deep Underground Coal Mine
by Han Liang, Jun Han, Chen Cao and Shuangwen Ma
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2205; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132205 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1763
Abstract
Thin spray-on liner (TSL) is a surface protection technology used by spraying a polymer film, which is widely used for mine airtightness and waterproofing. A reinforcing TSL can replace steel mesh, which is a new method for roadway support. This paper reviews the [...] Read more.
Thin spray-on liner (TSL) is a surface protection technology used by spraying a polymer film, which is widely used for mine airtightness and waterproofing. A reinforcing TSL can replace steel mesh, which is a new method for roadway support. This paper reviews the development of a reinforcing TSL. Considering the deterioration of geological conditions in deep underground mining and the demand for reinforcing automation, two kinds of polymeric reinforcing TSL (RPTSL) materials are developed. The mechanical characteristics of the new TSL materials are studied experimentally. Results show that the average compressive strength, tensile strength, cohesion, and internal friction angle of the two TSL materials are 52 and 32 MPa, 12 and 8 MPa, 6.2 and 17.2 MPa, and 33.6° and 25.9°, respectively. The bonding strength between the two materials and coal is greater than the tensile strength of coal itself, and the mechanical properties of the material for comparison are lower than those of both materials. Based on the TSL support mechanism, we examine the application of the two TSL materials to the mining environment and compare the mechanical properties of polymer materials and cement-based materials. The advantages of polymer materials include versatile mechanical properties, good adhesion, and high early strength. This study provides a new support material to replace steel mesh for roadway surface support, which satisfies the needs of different surface support designs under complex geological conditions, and promotes the automation of roadway support. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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11 pages, 2940 KiB  
Article
Study on Preparation of Triangular Melt-Spinning Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) Fibers and Its Fabric Strengthening and Toughening Epoxy
by Ting Zhou, Meng Wang and Ning Chen
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2204; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132204 - 03 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1893
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced epoxy materials have the advantages of light weight, high strength and designability, which are widely used in high-technology fields. In this paper, triangular poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) fibers prepared by melt spinning were used for the first time in reinforcing and toughening [...] Read more.
Fiber-reinforced epoxy materials have the advantages of light weight, high strength and designability, which are widely used in high-technology fields. In this paper, triangular poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) fibers prepared by melt spinning were used for the first time in reinforcing and toughening epoxy resins. Based on intermolecular complexation and plasticization, the triangular PVA fibers were successfully prepared via melt spinning and hot drawing. The thermal properties, crystallinity, morphology and mechanical properties of the triangular fibers with different draw ratios were characterized by DSC, FTIR, XRD, SEM and tensile testing. The results show that the comprehensive performance of the triangular fibers increased with the increase in the draw ratio. The tensile strength of triangular fibers increased from 0.3 to 4.22 cN/dtex. Then, the triangular PVA fiber and circular PVA fiber-reinforced and toughened epoxy materials were prepared, respectively. The mechanical properties of triangular PVA fiber/epoxy composites were higher than that of circular fiber-reinforced and toughened epoxy materials. Furthermore, the single-fiber pull-out test was used to analyze the interface capability of fibers and epoxy. The pull-out force of the circular fiber was 1.24 N, while that of the triangular fiber was 2.64 N. The specific surface area of the triangular PVA fiber was larger than that of the circular PVA fiber, which better made its contact with epoxy and was not easily pulled out. Experiments prove that triangular PVA fiber is an ideal material for strengthening and toughening epoxy resin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs))
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18 pages, 7400 KiB  
Article
Viscoelasticity Modeling of Dielectric Elastomers by Kelvin Voigt-Generalized Maxwell Model
by TuanDung Nguyen, Jin Li, Lijie Sun, DanhQuang Tran and Fuzhen Xuan
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2203; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132203 - 02 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3794
Abstract
Dielectric elastomers (DEs) are polymer materials consisting of a network of polymer chains connected by covalent cross-links. This type of structural feature allows DEs to generate large displacement outputs owing to the nonlinear electromechanical coupling and time-dependent viscoelastic behavior. The major challenge is [...] Read more.
Dielectric elastomers (DEs) are polymer materials consisting of a network of polymer chains connected by covalent cross-links. This type of structural feature allows DEs to generate large displacement outputs owing to the nonlinear electromechanical coupling and time-dependent viscoelastic behavior. The major challenge is to properly actuate the nonlinear soft materials in applications of robotic manipulations. To characterize the complex time-dependent viscoelasticity of the DEs, a nonlinear rheological model is proposed to describe the time-dependent viscoelastic behaviors of DEs by combining the advantages of the Kelvin–Voigt model and the generalized Maxwell model. We adopt a Monte Carlo statistical simulation method as an auxiliary method, to the best knowledge of the author which has never reportedly been used in this field, to improve the quantitative prediction ability of the generalized model. The proposed model can simultaneously describe the DE deformation processes under step voltage and alternating voltage excitation. Comparisons between the numerical simulation results and experimental data demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed generalized rheological model with a maximum prediction error of 3.762% and root-mean-square prediction error of 9.03%. The results presented herein can provide theoretical guidance for the design of viscoelastic DE actuators and serve as a basis for manipulation control to suppress the viscoelastic creep and increase the speed response of the dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Dielectric Materials)
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12 pages, 2087 KiB  
Article
Precise Tuning of Polymeric Fiber Dimensions to Enhance the Mechanical Properties of Alginate Hydrogel Matrices
by Zehua Li, Amanda K. Pearce, Andrew P. Dove and Rachel K. O’Reilly
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2202; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132202 - 02 Jul 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2666
Abstract
Hydrogels based on biopolymers, such as alginate, are commonly used as scaffolds in tissue engineering applications as they mimic the features of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). However, in their native state, they suffer from drawbacks including poor mechanical performance and a lack [...] Read more.
Hydrogels based on biopolymers, such as alginate, are commonly used as scaffolds in tissue engineering applications as they mimic the features of the native extracellular matrix (ECM). However, in their native state, they suffer from drawbacks including poor mechanical performance and a lack of biological functionalities. Herein, we have exploited a crystallization-driven self-assembly (CDSA) methodology to prepare well-defined one-dimensional micellar structures with controlled lengths to act as a mimic of fibrillar collagen in native ECM and improve the mechanical strength of alginate-based hydrogels. Poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate)-b-poly(N, N-dimethyl acrylamide) triblock copolymers were self-assembled into 1D cylindrical micelles with precise lengths using CDSA epitaxial growth and subsequently combined with calcium alginate hydrogel networks to obtain nanocomposites. Rheological characterization determined that the inclusion of the cylindrical structures within the hydrogel network increased the strength of the hydrogel under shear. Furthermore, the strain at flow point of the alginate-based hydrogel was found to increase with nanoparticle content, reaching an improvement of 37% when loaded with 500 nm cylindrical micelles. Overall, this study has demonstrated that one-dimensional cylindrical nanoparticles with controlled lengths formed through CDSA are promising fibrillar collagen mimics to build ECM scaffold models, allowing exploration of the relationship between collagen fiber size and matrix mechanical properties. Full article
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24 pages, 8047 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Damping on Pultruded GFRP and Steel Beams
by Vitor Dacol, Elsa Caetano and João Ramoa Correia
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2201; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132201 - 02 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2389
Abstract
The use of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites in civil engineering structures has seen considerable growth in recent years due to their high strength, low self-weight, and corrosion resistance, namely when compared to traditional materials, such as steel and reinforced concrete. To [...] Read more.
The use of glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites in civil engineering structures has seen considerable growth in recent years due to their high strength, low self-weight, and corrosion resistance, namely when compared to traditional materials, such as steel and reinforced concrete. To enable the structural use of GFRP composite materials in civil engineering applications, especially in footbridges, it is necessary to gather knowledge on their structural behaviour, particularly under dynamic loads, and to evaluate the ability of current design tools to predict their response. In fact, excessive vibration has a major influence on the in-service performance (comfort) of slender structures as well on their service life. The use of composite materials that combine high damping capacity with relatively high stiffness and low mass can provide functional and economic benefits, especially for footbridges. This paper aims to investigate the dynamic behaviour of GFRP free-supported beams to evaluate their modal characteristics (frequency, damping, and modal shape). To assess the benefits of using a structure made of pultruded GFRP rather than a conventional material—steel, a comparative analysis between the dynamic characteristics of GFRP and steel beams is performed. To specifically address material damping and to minimize the interference of the boundary conditions, the beams are tested in a free condition, resting on a low-density foam base. The results show that the damping capacity of GFRP is much higher than that of steel, as the measured damping factor of GFRP is five times higher than that of steel for the same boundary conditions and similar geometry. Furthermore, the fact that the frequencies of the tested specimens resemble for the two different materials highlights the perceived damping qualities of the polymer-based composite material. Finally, an energy method for evaluating the influence of the scale factor on material damping is applied, which made it possible to infer that the damping varies as a function of frequency but is not explicitly affected by the length of the specimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composites for Structural Applications)
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10 pages, 984 KiB  
Article
Water Behavior of Emulsions Stabilized by Modified Potato Starch
by Zuzanna Małyszek, Jacek Lewandowicz, Joanna Le Thanh-Blicharz, Katarzyna Walkowiak, Przemysław Łukasz Kowalczewski and Hanna Maria Baranowska
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2200; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132200 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3161
Abstract
Starch is a widely known and used emulsion stabilizer. In order to improve its properties, various types of modifications are made that change its ability to emulsify and stabilize. This paper describes the analysis of the molecular dynamics of water using low-field nuclear [...] Read more.
Starch is a widely known and used emulsion stabilizer. In order to improve its properties, various types of modifications are made that change its ability to emulsify and stabilize. This paper describes the analysis of the molecular dynamics of water using low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF NMR) in oil-in-water emulsions obtained with the use of physically or chemically modified potato starch. The analysis of changes in spin-spin and spin-lattice relaxation times depending on the temperature allowed the activation energy value of water molecules in the analyzed emulsions to be determined. It has been shown that the presence of starch influences the values of spin-lattice T1 and spin-spin T2 relaxation times, both in the water and the oil phase, and the observed changes largely depended on the type of starch modification. Both types of analyzed starches also differently influenced the energy of activation of rotational movements of water molecules. On the basis of the analyses carried out with the use of LF NMR, it can be concluded that physically modified starch acts not only as a stabilizer, but also as an emulsifier, while acetylated starch does not exhibit good emulsifying properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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28 pages, 16277 KiB  
Article
A Molecular Simulation Study of Silica/Polysulfone Mixed Matrix Membrane for Mixed Gas Separation
by Khadija Asif, Serene Sow Mun Lock, Syed Ali Ammar Taqvi, Norwahyu Jusoh, Chung Loong Yiin, Bridgid Lai Fui Chin and Adrian Chun Minh Loy
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2199; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132199 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4938
Abstract
Polysulfone-based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) incorporated with silica nanoparticles are a new generation material under ongoing research and development for gas separation. However, the attributes of a better-performing MMM cannot be precisely studied under experimental conditions. Thus, it requires an atomistic scale study [...] Read more.
Polysulfone-based mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) incorporated with silica nanoparticles are a new generation material under ongoing research and development for gas separation. However, the attributes of a better-performing MMM cannot be precisely studied under experimental conditions. Thus, it requires an atomistic scale study to elucidate the separation performance of silica/polysulfone MMMs. As most of the research work and empirical models for gas transport properties have been limited to pure gas, a computational framework for molecular simulation is required to study the mixed gas transport properties in silica/polysulfone MMMs to reflect real membrane separation. In this work, Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were employed to study the solubility and diffusivity of CO2/CH4 with varying gas concentrations (i.e., 30% CO2/CH4, 50% CO2/CH4, and 70% CO2/CH4) and silica content (i.e., 15–30 wt.%). The accuracy of the simulated structures was validated with published literature, followed by the study of the gas transport properties at 308.15 K and 1 atm. Simulation results concluded an increase in the free volume with an increasing weight percentage of silica. It was also found that pure gas consistently exhibited higher gas transport properties when compared to mixed gas conditions. The results also showed a competitive gas transport performance for mixed gases, which is more apparent when CO2 increases. In this context, an increment in the permeation was observed for mixed gas with increasing gas concentrations (i.e., 70% CO2/CH4 > 50% CO2/CH4 > 30% CO2/CH4). The diffusivity, solubility, and permeability of the mixed gases were consistently increasing until 25 wt.%, followed by a decrease for 30 wt.% of silica. An empirical model based on a parallel resistance approach was developed by incorporating mathematical formulations for solubility and permeability. The model results were compared with simulation results to quantify the effect of mixed gas transport, which showed an 18% and 15% percentage error for the permeability and solubility, respectively, in comparison to the simulation data. This study provides a basis for future understanding of MMMs using molecular simulations and modeling techniques for mixed gas conditions that demonstrate real membrane separation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)
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28 pages, 2342 KiB  
Article
Viscoelastic Effects on the Response of Electroelastic Materials
by Ricardo Diaz-Calleja, Damián Ginestar, Vícente Compañ Moreno, Pedro Llovera-Segovia, Clara Burgos-Simón, Juan Carlos Cortés, Alfredo Quijano and Joaquín Díaz-Boils
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2198; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132198 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2159
Abstract
Electroelastic materials, as for example, 3M VHB 4910, are attracting attention as actuators or generators in some developments and applications. This is due to their capacity of being deformed when submitted to an electric field. Some models of their actuation are available, but [...] Read more.
Electroelastic materials, as for example, 3M VHB 4910, are attracting attention as actuators or generators in some developments and applications. This is due to their capacity of being deformed when submitted to an electric field. Some models of their actuation are available, but recently, viscoelastic models have been proposed to give an account of the dissipative behaviour of these materials. Their response to an external mechanical or electrical force field implies a relaxation process towards a new state of thermodynamic equilibrium, which can be described by a relaxation time. However, it is well known that viscoelastic and dielectric materials, as for example, polymers, exhibit a distribution of relaxation times instead of a single relaxation time. In the present approach, a continuous distribution of relaxation times is proposed via the introduction of fractional derivatives of the stress and strain, which gives a better account of the material behaviour. The application of fractional derivatives is described and a comparison with former results is made. Then, a double generalisation is carried out: the first one is referred to the viscoelastic or dielectric models and is addressed to obtain a nonsymmetric spectrum of relaxation times, and the second one is the adoption of the more realistic Mooney–Rivlin equation for the stress–strain relationship of the elastomeric material. A modified Mooney–Rivlin model for the free energy density of a hyperelastic material, VHB 4910 has been used based on experimental results of previous authors. This last proposal ensures the appearance of the bifurcation phenomena which is analysed for equibiaxial dead loads; time-dependent bifurcation phenomena are predicted by the extended Mooney–Rivlin equations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Physics and Theory)
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10 pages, 1874 KiB  
Communication
Auto-Disinfectant Acrylic Paints Functionalised with Triclosan and Isoborneol—Antibacterial Assessment
by Micaela Machado Querido, Ivo Paulo, Sriram Hariharakrishnan, Daniel Rocha, Cristiana Costa Pereira, Nuno Barbosa, João Moura Bordado, João Paulo Teixeira and Rui Galhano dos Santos
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132197 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2384
Abstract
Environmental surface contamination with microorganisms is a serious concern worldwide. Triclosan and isoborneol present good antimicrobial activity. Their immobilisation to paint substrates allows for development of a material that stays effective over a longer time. In this work, we disclosed the preliminary studies [...] Read more.
Environmental surface contamination with microorganisms is a serious concern worldwide. Triclosan and isoborneol present good antimicrobial activity. Their immobilisation to paint substrates allows for development of a material that stays effective over a longer time. In this work, we disclosed the preliminary studies to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the active molecule after being functionalised with isocyanates for further immobilisation on the paint substrate. Overall, the newly developed non-release antimicrobial coating provides an effective way of preventing the spread of diseases and has been proven to inhibit bacterial growth and with a considerable antimicrobial activity towards S. aureus, E. coli, and K. variicola at the tested concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric Films)
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17 pages, 4348 KiB  
Article
Fabrication and Application of Photocatalytic Composites and Water Treatment Facility Based on 3D Printing Technology
by Zhirui Mai, Di Liu, Ziyao Chen, Dongsong Lin, Wenxu Zheng, Xianming Dong, Qiongzhi Gao and Wuyi Zhou
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2196; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132196 - 01 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2584
Abstract
Currently, the degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater by photocatalytic technology has attracted great attention. In this study, a new type of 3D printing material with photocatalytic activity was first prepared to print a water treatment equipment, and then a layer of silver-loaded [...] Read more.
Currently, the degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater by photocatalytic technology has attracted great attention. In this study, a new type of 3D printing material with photocatalytic activity was first prepared to print a water treatment equipment, and then a layer of silver-loaded TiO2 was coated on the equipment to further improve the catalytic degradation performance. The composite filaments with a diameter of 1.75 ± 0.05 mm were prepared by a melt blending method, which contained 10 wt% of modified TiO2 and 90 wt% of PLA. The silver-loaded TiO2 was uniformly coated on the equipment through a UV-curing method. The final results showed that those modified particles were uniformly dispersed in the PLA matrix. The stable printing composite filaments could be produced when 10 wt% TiO2 was added to the PLA matrix. Moreover, the photocatalytic degradation performance could be effectively improved after 5 wt% of silver loading was added. This novel facility showed good degradability of organic compounds in wastewater and bactericidal effect, which had potential applications for the drinking water treatment in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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11 pages, 1053 KiB  
Article
Braiding Dynamics in Semiflexible Filament Bundles under Oscillatory Forcing
by Valentin M. Slepukhin and Alex J. Levine
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2195; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132195 - 01 Jul 2021
Viewed by 1662
Abstract
We examine the nonequilibrium production of topological defects—braids—in semiflexible filament bundles under cycles of compression and tension. During these cycles, the period of compression facilitates the thermally activated pair production of braid/anti-braid pairs, which then may separate when the bundle is under tension. [...] Read more.
We examine the nonequilibrium production of topological defects—braids—in semiflexible filament bundles under cycles of compression and tension. During these cycles, the period of compression facilitates the thermally activated pair production of braid/anti-braid pairs, which then may separate when the bundle is under tension. As a result, appropriately tuned alternating periods of compression and extension should lead to the proliferation of braid defects in a bundle so that the linear density of these pairs far exceeds that expected in the thermal equilibrium. Secondly, we examine the slow extension of braided bundles under tension, showing that their end-to-end length creeps nonmonotonically under a fixed force due to braid deformation and the motion of the braid pair along the bundle. We conclude with a few speculations regarding experiments on semiflexible filament bundles and their networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Semiflexible Polymers II)
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19 pages, 7224 KiB  
Article
Stress Distribution and Fracture Toughness of Underground Reinforced Plastic Pipe Composite
by Mohammed Y. Abdellah, Rami Alfattani, Ibrahim A. Alnaser and G. T. Abdel-Jaber
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2194; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132194 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3386
Abstract
Reinforced composite materials have many applications in the aerospace, marine, and petroleum industries. Glass fiber-reinforced pipes are of considerable importance as pressurized vessels, infrastructure materials, and petroleum wastewater pipelines. The stress intensity factor due to through-thickness discontinuities is a major parameter in fracture [...] Read more.
Reinforced composite materials have many applications in the aerospace, marine, and petroleum industries. Glass fiber-reinforced pipes are of considerable importance as pressurized vessels, infrastructure materials, and petroleum wastewater pipelines. The stress intensity factor due to through-thickness discontinuities is a major parameter in fracture mechanics to understand the failure mechanisms in glass fiber-composite pipes. The stress intensity factor is calculated for a composite cylinder subjected to internal pressure using the linear extended finite element method based on the law of energy release evaluation of surface damage. The analytical model needs two material properties; they are the tensile strength and the fracture toughness; therefore, a standard tensile test was carried out on a standard specimen taken from the pipe’s wall thickness. Moreover, the compact tension test specimen was manufactured from the pipe’s wall thickness to obtain the fracture toughness. The average tensile strength was measured as 21.5 MPa with a standard deviation of 5.59 MPa, moreover, the average Young’s modulus was measured as 32.75 GPa with a standard deviation of 6.64 GPa. The fracture toughness was measured as 2322 (MPa m) with a standard deviation of 142.5 (MPa m), whereas the average surface release energy (GIC) was 153.6 kJ/m2 with a standard deviation of 22.53 kJ/m2. A valuable design equation was extracted from the finite element model to measure the effect of cracks on the hoop stress of the cylinder wall thickness based on a nonlinear model. Moreover, an acceptable equation was used to calculate the correction and shape factor of a cylinder with movable and unmovable through-thickness cracks. This study provides useful tools and guidance for the design and analysis of composite cylinders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs))
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17 pages, 6227 KiB  
Article
Multicore Assemblies from Three-Component Linear Homo-Copolymer Systems: A Coarse-Grained Modeling Study
by Sousa Javan Nikkhah, Elsi Turunen, Anneli Lepo, Tapio Ala-Nissila and Maria Sammalkorpi
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2193; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132193 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2342
Abstract
Multicore polymer micelles and aggregates are assemblies that contain several cores. The dual-length-scale compartmentalized solvophobic–solvophilic molecular environment makes them useful for, e.g., advanced drug delivery, high-precision synthesis platforms, confined catalysis, and sensor device applications. However, designing and regulating polymer systems that self-assemble to [...] Read more.
Multicore polymer micelles and aggregates are assemblies that contain several cores. The dual-length-scale compartmentalized solvophobic–solvophilic molecular environment makes them useful for, e.g., advanced drug delivery, high-precision synthesis platforms, confined catalysis, and sensor device applications. However, designing and regulating polymer systems that self-assemble to such morphologies remains a challenge. Using dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulations, we demonstrate how simple, three-component linear polymer systems consisting of free solvophilic and solvophobic homopolymers, and di-block copolymers, can self-assemble in solution to form well-defined multicore assemblies. We examine the polymer property range over which multicore assemblies can be expected and how the assemblies can be tuned both in terms of their morphology and structure. For a fixed degree of polymerization, a certain level of hydrophobicity is required for the solvophobic component to lead to formation of multicore assemblies. Additionally, the transition from single-core to multicore requires a relatively high solvophobicity difference between the solvophilic and solvophobic polymer components. Furthermore, if the solvophilic polymer is replaced by a solvophobic species, well-defined multicore–multicompartment aggregates can be obtained. The findings provide guidelines for multicore assemblies’ formation from simple three-component systems and how to control polymer particle morphology and structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Networks)
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11 pages, 26179 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Chain Mobility of Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene by Regulating Residence Time under a Consecutive Elongational Flow for Improved Processability
by Xiaochuan Chen, Xiaotong Wang, Yanhong Feng, Jinping Qu, Dingshan Yu, Changlin Cao and Xudong Chen
Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2192; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polym13132192 - 30 Jun 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2547
Abstract
Improving the processability of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and understanding the effect of the polymeric chain mobility has long been a challenging task. Herein, we show that UHMWPE without any processing aids can be processed at a lower temperature of 180 °C [...] Read more.
Improving the processability of ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and understanding the effect of the polymeric chain mobility has long been a challenging task. Herein, we show that UHMWPE without any processing aids can be processed at a lower temperature of 180 °C compared to conventional processing temperatures (~250 °C) under a continuous elongational flow (CEF) by using an eccentric rotor extruder (ERE). By probing the effect of the residence time of UHMWPE samples under a CEF on the morphology, rheological behavior and molecular orientation, we find that the long polymer chains of UHMWPE are apt to orientate under a consecutive volume elongational deformation, thereby leading to a higher residual stress for the extruded sample. Meanwhile, the residence time of samples can regulate the polymeric chain mobility, giving rise to the simultaneous decrease of the melting defects and residual stress as well as Hermans orientation function with increasing residence time from 0 to 60 s. This also engenders the enhanced diffusion of UHMWPE segments, resulting in a defect-free morphology and higher entanglement with lower crystallinity but without causing obvious thermal oxidative degradation of UHMWPE. This interesting result could originate from the fast chain entanglement and particle welding enabled by a desirably short residence time, which could be explained by the empirical, entropy-driven melting explosion mechanism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Polymer Composite Processing)
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