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Genes, Volume 8, Issue 2 (February 2017) – 39 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): RNA editing by deamination of adenosine to inosine (A-to-I editing) is an evolutionarily conserved process involved in various cellular functions. In human, A-to-I editing is carried out by three major adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs): ADAR1-p150, ADAR1-p110, and ADAR2. RNA immunoprecipitation-sequencing revealed that each ADAR protein differentially binds to a distinct set of coding and long non-coding RNAs. View this paper
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2531 KiB  
Article
A Cross-Species Gene Expression Marker-Based Genetic Map and QTL Analysis in Bambara Groundnut
by Hui Hui Chai, Wai Kuan Ho, Neil Graham, Sean May, Festo Massawe and Sean Mayes
Genes 2017, 8(2), 84; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020084 - 22 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7451
Abstract
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) is an underutilised legume crop, which has long been recognised as a protein-rich and drought-tolerant crop, used extensively in Sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of the study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in agronomic [...] Read more.
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) is an underutilised legume crop, which has long been recognised as a protein-rich and drought-tolerant crop, used extensively in Sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of the study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) involved in agronomic and drought-related traits using an expression marker-based genetic map based on major crop resources developed in soybean. The gene expression markers (GEMs) were generated at the (unmasked) probe-pair level after cross-hybridisation of bambara groundnut leaf RNA to the Affymetrix Soybean Genome GeneChip. A total of 753 markers grouped at an LOD (Logarithm of odds) of three, with 527 markers mapped into linkage groups. From this initial map, a spaced expression marker-based genetic map consisting of 13 linkage groups containing 218 GEMs, spanning 982.7 cM (centimorgan) of the bambara groundnut genome, was developed. Of the QTL detected, 46% were detected in both control and drought treatment populations, suggesting that they are the result of intrinsic trait differences between the parental lines used to construct the cross, with 31% detected in only one of the conditions. The present GEM map in bambara groundnut provides one technically feasible route for the translation of information and resources from major and model plant species to underutilised and resource-poor crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics and Genomics)
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Review
MNT and Emerging Concepts of MNT‐MYC Antagonism
by Guang Yang and Peter J. Hurlin
Genes 2017, 8(2), 83; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020083 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6284
Abstract
MYC family proteins play fundamental roles in stem and progenitor cell homeostasis, morphogenesis and cancer. As expected for proteins that profoundly affect the fate of cells, the activities of MYC are regulated at a multitude of levels. One mechanism with the potential to [...] Read more.
MYC family proteins play fundamental roles in stem and progenitor cell homeostasis, morphogenesis and cancer. As expected for proteins that profoundly affect the fate of cells, the activities of MYC are regulated at a multitude of levels. One mechanism with the potential to broadly affect the activities of MYC is transcriptional antagonism by a group of MYC‐related transcriptional repressors. From this group, the protein MNT has emerged as having perhaps the most far‐reaching impact on MYC activities. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of MNT, its regulation and how, as a MYC antagonist, it functions both as a tumor suppressor and facilitator of MYC‐driven proliferation and oncogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue MYC Networks)
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Review
Targeting MDM4 Splicing in Cancers
by Boris Bardot and Franck Toledo
Genes 2017, 8(2), 82; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020082 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4132
Abstract
MDM4, an essential negative regulator of the P53 tumor suppressor, is frequently overexpressed in cancer cells that harbor a wild‐type P53. By a mechanism based on alternative splicing, the MDM4 gene generates two mutually exclusive isoforms: MDM4-FL, which encodes the full‐length MDM4 protein, [...] Read more.
MDM4, an essential negative regulator of the P53 tumor suppressor, is frequently overexpressed in cancer cells that harbor a wild‐type P53. By a mechanism based on alternative splicing, the MDM4 gene generates two mutually exclusive isoforms: MDM4-FL, which encodes the full‐length MDM4 protein, and a shorter splice variant called MDM4-S. Previous results suggested that the MDM4-S isoform could be an important driver of tumor development. In this short review, we discuss a recent set of data indicating that MDM4-S is more likely a passenger isoform during tumorigenesis and that targeting MDM4 splicing to prevent MDM4-FL protein expression appears as a promising strategy to reactivate p53 in cancer cells. The benefits and risks associated with this strategy are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Therapeutic Alternative Splicing: Mechanisms and Applications)
131 KiB  
Opinion
New Evidence for the Theory of Chromosome Organization by Repetitive Elements (CORE)
by Shao-Jun Tang
Genes 2017, 8(2), 81; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020081 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3518
Abstract
Repetitive DNA elements were proposed to coordinate chromatin folding and interaction in chromosomes by their intrinsic homology-based clustering ability. A recent analysis of the data sets from chromosome-conformation-capture experiments confirms the spatial clustering of DNA repeats of the same family in the nuclear [...] Read more.
Repetitive DNA elements were proposed to coordinate chromatin folding and interaction in chromosomes by their intrinsic homology-based clustering ability. A recent analysis of the data sets from chromosome-conformation-capture experiments confirms the spatial clustering of DNA repeats of the same family in the nuclear space, and thus provides strong new support for the CORE theory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Genetics and Genomics)
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Article
Deep Transcriptome Sequencing of Two Green Algae, Chara vulgaris and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Provides No Evidence of Organellar RNA Editing
by A. Bruce Cahoon, John A. Nauss, Conner D. Stanley and Ali Qureshi
Genes 2017, 8(2), 80; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020080 - 20 Feb 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5483
Abstract
Nearly all land plants post‐transcriptionally modify specific nucleotides within RNAs, a process known as RNA editing. This adaptation allows the correction of deleterious mutations within the asexually reproducing and presumably non‐recombinant chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes. There are no reports of RNA editing in [...] Read more.
Nearly all land plants post‐transcriptionally modify specific nucleotides within RNAs, a process known as RNA editing. This adaptation allows the correction of deleterious mutations within the asexually reproducing and presumably non‐recombinant chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes. There are no reports of RNA editing in any of the green algae so this phenomenon is presumed to have originated in embryophytes either after the invasion of land or in the now extinct algal ancestor of all land plants. This was challenged when a recent in silico screen for RNA edit sites based on genomic sequence homology predicted edit sites in the green alga Chara vulgaris, a multicellular alga found within the Streptophyta clade and one of the closest extant algal relatives of land plants. In this study, the organelle transcriptomes of C. vulgaris and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were deep sequenced for a comprehensive assessment of RNA editing. Initial analyses based solely on sequence comparisons suggested potential edit sites in both species, but subsequent high‐resolution melt analysis, RNase H‐dependent PCR (rhPCR), and Sanger sequencing of DNA and complementary DNAs (cDNAs) from each of the putative edit sites revealed them to be either single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or spurious deep sequencing results. The lack of RNA editing in these two lineages is consistent with the current hypothesis that RNA editing evolved after embryophytes split from its ancestral algal lineage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics and Genomics)
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Article
Transgene Expression and Host Cell Responses to Replication-Defective, Single-Cycle, and Replication-Competent Adenovirus Vectors
by Catherine M. Crosby and Michael A. Barry
Genes 2017, 8(2), 79; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020079 - 18 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5599
Abstract
Most adenovirus (Ad) vectors are E1 gene deleted replication defective (RD-Ad) vectors that deliver one transgene to the cell and all expression is based on that one gene. In contrast, E1-intact replication-competent Ad (RC-Ad) vectors replicate their DNA and their transgenes up to [...] Read more.
Most adenovirus (Ad) vectors are E1 gene deleted replication defective (RD-Ad) vectors that deliver one transgene to the cell and all expression is based on that one gene. In contrast, E1-intact replication-competent Ad (RC-Ad) vectors replicate their DNA and their transgenes up to 10,000-fold, amplifying transgene expression markedly higher than RD-Ad vectors. While RC-Ad are more potent, they run the real risk of causing adenovirus infections in vector recipients and those that administer them. To gain the benefits of transgene amplification, but avoid the risk of Ad infections, we developed “single cycle” Ad (SC-Ad) vectors. SC-Ads amplify transgene expression and generated markedly stronger and more persistent immune responses than RD-Ad as expected. However, they also unexpectedly generated stronger immune responses than RC-Ad vectors. To explore the basis of this potency here, we compared gene expression and the cellular responses to infection to these vectors in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, in primary human lung epithelial cells, SC- and RC-Ad amplified their genomes more than 400-fold relative to RD-Ad with higher replication by SC-Ad. This replication translated into higher green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression for 48 h by SC- and RC-Ad than by RD-Ad. In vitro, in the absence of an immune system, RD-Ad expression became higher by 72 h coincident with cell death mediated by SC- and RC-Ad and release of transgene product from the dying cells. When the vectors were compared in human THP-1 Lucia- interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) cells, which are a human monocyte cell line that have been modified to quantify ISG activity, RC-Ad6 provoked significantly stronger ISG responses than RD- or SC-Ad. In mice, intravenous or intranasal injection produced up to 100-fold genome replication. Under these in vivo conditions in the presence of the immune system, luciferase expression by RC and SC-Ad was markedly higher than that by RD-Ad. In immunodeficient mice, SC-Ad drove stronger luciferase expression than RC- or RD-Ad. These data demonstrate better transgene expression by SC- and RC-Ad in vitro and in vivo than RD-Ad. This higher expression by the replicating vectors results in a peak of expression within 1 to 2 days followed by cell death of infected cells and release of transgene products. While SC- and RC-Ad expression were similar in mice and in Syrian hamsters, RC-Ad provoked much stronger ISG induction which may explain in part SC-Ad′s ability to generate stronger and more persistent immune responses than RC-Ad in Ad permissive hamsters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Therapy)
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Communication
Early Insights from Commercialization of Gene Therapies in Europe
by Nicolas Touchot and Mathias Flume
Genes 2017, 8(2), 78; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020078 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 6131
Abstract
After years of research and development, gene therapies are now becoming a commercial reality with several products approved by European regulatory authorities [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Therapy)
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Article
MicroRNA Expression Profile Identifies High Grade, Non-Muscle-Invasive Bladder Tumors at Elevated Risk to Progress to an Invasive Phenotype
by Sara M. Lenherr, Sheaumei Tsai, Brasil Silva Neto, Travis B. Sullivan, Cara B. Cimmino, Tanya Logvinenko, Jason Gee, Wei Huang, John A. Libertino, Ian C. Summerhayes and Kimberly M. Rieger-Christ
Genes 2017, 8(2), 77; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020077 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5040
Abstract
The objective of this study was to identify a panel of microRNAs (miRNAs) differentially expressed in high-grade non-muscle invasive (NMI; TaG3–T1G3) urothelial carcinoma that progress to muscle-invasive disease compared to those that remain non-muscle invasive, whether recurrence happens or not. Eighty-nine high-grade NMI [...] Read more.
The objective of this study was to identify a panel of microRNAs (miRNAs) differentially expressed in high-grade non-muscle invasive (NMI; TaG3–T1G3) urothelial carcinoma that progress to muscle-invasive disease compared to those that remain non-muscle invasive, whether recurrence happens or not. Eighty-nine high-grade NMI urothelial carcinoma lesions were identified and total RNA was extracted from paraffin-embedded tissue. Patients were categorized as either having a non-muscle invasive lesion with no evidence of progression over a 3-year period or as having a similar lesion showing progression to muscle invasion over the same period. In addition, comparison of miRNA expression levels between patients with and without prior intravesical therapy was performed. Total RNA was pooled for microarray analysis in each group (non-progressors and progressors), and qRT-PCR of individual samples validated differential expression between non-progressive and progressive lesions. MiR-32-5p, -224-5p, and -412-3p were associated with cancer-specific survival. Downregulation of miR-203a-3p and miR-205-5p were significantly linked to progression in non-muscle invasive bladder tumors. These miRNAs include those implicated in epithelial mesenchymal transition, previously identified as members of a panel characterizing transition from the non-invasive to invasive phenotype in bladder tumors. Furthermore, we were able to identify specific miRNAs that are linked to postoperative outcome in patients with high grade NMI urothelial carcinoma of the bladder (UCB) that progressed to muscle-invasive (MI) disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue microRNAs and Other Non-Coding RNAs in Human Diseases)
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Review
Immune-Mediated Therapies for Liver Cancer
by Rajagopal N. Aravalli and Clifford J. Steer
Genes 2017, 8(2), 76; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020076 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 9910
Abstract
In recent years, immunotherapy has gained renewed interest as an alternative therapeutic approach for solid tumors. Its premise is based on harnessing the power of the host immune system to destroy tumor cells. Development of immune-mediated therapies, such as vaccines, adoptive transfer of [...] Read more.
In recent years, immunotherapy has gained renewed interest as an alternative therapeutic approach for solid tumors. Its premise is based on harnessing the power of the host immune system to destroy tumor cells. Development of immune-mediated therapies, such as vaccines, adoptive transfer of autologous immune cells, and stimulation of host immunity by targeting tumor-evasive mechanisms have advanced cancer immunotherapy. In addition, studies on innate immunity and mechanisms of immune evasion have enhanced our understanding on the immunology of liver cancer. Preclinical and clinical studies with immune-mediated therapies have shown potential benefits in patients with liver cancer. In this review, we summarize current knowledge and recent developments in tumor immunology by focusing on two main primary liver cancers: hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Genomics and Genetic Diseases)
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Article
The Ageing Brain: Effects on DNA Repair and DNA Methylation in Mice
by Sabine A. S. Langie, Kerry M. Cameron, Gabriella Ficz, David Oxley, Bartłomiej Tomaszewski, Joanna P. Gorniak, Lou M. Maas, Roger W. L. Godschalk, Frederik J. Van Schooten, Wolf Reik, Thomas Von Zglinicki and John C. Mathers
Genes 2017, 8(2), 75; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020075 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8120
Abstract
Base excision repair (BER) may become less effective with ageing resulting in accumulation of DNA lesions, genome instability and altered gene expression that contribute to age-related degenerative diseases. The brain is particularly vulnerable to the accumulation of DNA lesions; hence, proper functioning of [...] Read more.
Base excision repair (BER) may become less effective with ageing resulting in accumulation of DNA lesions, genome instability and altered gene expression that contribute to age-related degenerative diseases. The brain is particularly vulnerable to the accumulation of DNA lesions; hence, proper functioning of DNA repair mechanisms is important for neuronal survival. Although the mechanism of age-related decline in DNA repair capacity is unknown, growing evidence suggests that epigenetic events (e.g., DNA methylation) contribute to the ageing process and may be functionally important through the regulation of the expression of DNA repair genes. We hypothesize that epigenetic mechanisms are involved in mediating the age-related decline in BER in the brain. Brains from male mice were isolated at 3–32 months of age. Pyrosequencing analyses revealed significantly increased Ogg1 methylation with ageing, which correlated inversely with Ogg1 expression. The reduced Ogg1 expression correlated with enhanced expression of methyl-CpG binding protein 2 and ten-eleven translocation enzyme 2. A significant inverse correlation between Neil1 methylation at CpG-site2 and expression was also observed. BER activity was significantly reduced and associated with increased 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine levels. These data indicate that Ogg1 and Neil1 expression can be epigenetically regulated, which may mediate the effects of ageing on DNA repair in the brain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Epigenetic Gene Regulation in Brain Function)
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1447 KiB  
Review
The Intra-S Checkpoint Responses to DNA Damage
by Divya Ramalingam Iyer and Nicholas Rhind
Genes 2017, 8(2), 74; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020074 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 76 | Viewed by 9128
Abstract
Faithful duplication of the genome is a challenge because DNA is susceptible to damage by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic genotoxins, such as free radicals and UV light. Cells activate the intra-S checkpoint in response to damage during S phase to protect [...] Read more.
Faithful duplication of the genome is a challenge because DNA is susceptible to damage by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic genotoxins, such as free radicals and UV light. Cells activate the intra-S checkpoint in response to damage during S phase to protect genomic integrity and ensure replication fidelity. The checkpoint prevents genomic instability mainly by regulating origin firing, fork progression, and transcription of G1/S genes in response to DNA damage. Several studies hint that regulation of forks is perhaps the most critical function of the intra-S checkpoint. However, the exact role of the checkpoint at replication forks has remained elusive and controversial. Is the checkpoint required for fork stability, or fork restart, or to prevent fork reversal or fork collapse, or activate repair at replication forks? What are the factors that the checkpoint targets at stalled replication forks? In this review, we will discuss the various pathways activated by the intra-S checkpoint in response to damage to prevent genomic instability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Review
Mcm10: A Dynamic Scaffold at Eukaryotic Replication Forks
by Ryan M. Baxley and Anja-Katrin Bielinsky
Genes 2017, 8(2), 73; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020073 - 17 Feb 2017
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 8787
Abstract
To complete the duplication of large genomes efficiently, mechanisms have evolved that coordinate DNA unwinding with DNA synthesis and provide quality control measures prior to cell division. Minichromosome maintenance protein 10 (Mcm10) is a conserved component of the eukaryotic replisome that contributes to [...] Read more.
To complete the duplication of large genomes efficiently, mechanisms have evolved that coordinate DNA unwinding with DNA synthesis and provide quality control measures prior to cell division. Minichromosome maintenance protein 10 (Mcm10) is a conserved component of the eukaryotic replisome that contributes to this process in multiple ways. Mcm10 promotes the initiation of DNA replication through direct interactions with the cell division cycle 45 (Cdc45)-minichromosome maintenance complex proteins 2-7 (Mcm2-7)-go-ichi-ni-san GINS complex proteins, as well as single- and double-stranded DNA. After origin firing, Mcm10 controls replication fork stability to support elongation, primarily facilitating Okazaki fragment synthesis through recruitment of DNA polymerase-α and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Based on its multivalent properties, Mcm10 serves as an essential scaffold to promote DNA replication and guard against replication stress. Under pathological conditions, Mcm10 is often dysregulated. Genetic amplification and/or overexpression of MCM10 are common in cancer, and can serve as a strong prognostic marker of poor survival. These findings are compatible with a heightened requirement for Mcm10 in transformed cells to overcome limitations for DNA replication dictated by altered cell cycle control. In this review, we highlight advances in our understanding of when, where and how Mcm10 functions within the replisome to protect against barriers that cause incomplete replication. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Review
Type 1 Diabetes Candidate Genes Linked to Pancreatic Islet Cell Inflammation and Beta-Cell Apoptosis
by Joachim Størling and Flemming Pociot
Genes 2017, 8(2), 72; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020072 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 11026
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic immune-mediated disease resulting from the selective destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic islet β-cells. Susceptibility to the disease is the result of complex interactions between environmental and genetic risk factors. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more [...] Read more.
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic immune-mediated disease resulting from the selective destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic islet β-cells. Susceptibility to the disease is the result of complex interactions between environmental and genetic risk factors. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified more than 50 genetic regions that affect the risk of developing T1D. Most of these susceptibility loci, however, harbor several genes, and the causal variant(s) and gene(s) for most of the loci remain to be established. A significant part of the genes located in the T1D susceptibility loci are expressed in human islets and β cells and mounting evidence suggests that some of these genes modulate the β-cell response to the immune system and viral infection and regulate apoptotic β-cell death. Here, we discuss the current status of T1D susceptibility loci and candidate genes with focus on pancreatic islet cell inflammation and β-cell apoptosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetics and Functional Genomics of Diabetes Mellitus)
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Review
Therapeutic Approaches Targeting MYC-Driven Prostate Cancer
by Richard J. Rebello, Richard B. Pearson, Ross D. Hannan and Luc Furic
Genes 2017, 8(2), 71; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020071 - 16 Feb 2017
Cited by 78 | Viewed by 8427
Abstract
The transcript encoding the proto-oncogene MYC is commonly overexpressed in prostate cancer (PC). MYC protein abundance is also increased in the majority of cases of advanced and metastatic castrate-resistant PC (mCRPC). Accordingly, the MYC-directed transcriptional program directly contributes to PC by upregulating the [...] Read more.
The transcript encoding the proto-oncogene MYC is commonly overexpressed in prostate cancer (PC). MYC protein abundance is also increased in the majority of cases of advanced and metastatic castrate-resistant PC (mCRPC). Accordingly, the MYC-directed transcriptional program directly contributes to PC by upregulating the expression of a number of pro-tumorigenic factors involved in cell growth and proliferation. A key cellular process downstream of MYC activity is the regulation of ribosome biogenesis which sustains tumor growth. MYC activity also cooperates with the dysregulation of the phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR pathway to promote PC cell survival. Recent advances in the understanding of these interactions through the use of animal models have provided significant insight into the therapeutic efficacy of targeting MYC activity by interfering with its transcriptional program, and indirectly by targeting downstream cellular events linked to MYC transformation potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue MYC Networks)
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Article
FTO Genotype and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Spatial Analysis and Meta-Analysis of 62 Case-Control Studies from Different Regions
by Ying Yang, Boyang Liu, Wei Xia, Jing Yan, Huan-Yu Liu, Ling Hu and Song-Mei Liu
Genes 2017, 8(2), 70; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020070 - 11 Feb 2017
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6083
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health problem that results from the interaction of environmental factors with genetic variants. Although a number of studies have suggested that genetic polymorphisms in the fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene are associated [...] Read more.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health problem that results from the interaction of environmental factors with genetic variants. Although a number of studies have suggested that genetic polymorphisms in the fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) gene are associated with T2DM risk, the results have been inconsistent. To investigate whether FTO polymorphisms associate with T2DM risk and whether this association is region-related, we performed this spatial analysis and meta-analysis. More than 60,000 T2DM patients and 90,000 controls from 62 case-control studies were included in this study. Odds ratios (ORs), 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and Moran’s I statistic were used to estimate the association between FTO rs9939609, rs8050136, rs1421085, and rs17817499, and T2DM risk in different regions. rs9939609 (OR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.11–1.19) and rs8050136 (OR = 1.14, 95% CI 1.10–1.18) conferred a predisposition to T2DM. After adjustment for body mass index (BMI), the association remained statistically significant for rs9939609 (OR = 1.11, 95% CI 1.05–1.17) and rs8050136 (OR = 1.08, 95% CI 1.03–1.12). In the subgroup analysis of rs9939609 and rs8050136, similar results were observed in East Asia, while no association was found in North America. In South Asia, an association for rs9939609 was revealed but not for rs8050136. In addition, no relationship was found with rs1421085 or rs17817499 regardless of adjustment for BMI. Moran’s I statistic showed that significant positive spatial autocorrelations existed in rs9939609 and rs8050136. Studies on rs9939609 and rs8050136 focused on East Asia and South Asia, whereas studies on rs1421085 and rs17817499 were distributed in North America and North Africa. Our data suggest that the associations between FTO rs9939609, rs8050136 and T2DM are region-related, and the two single-nucleotide polymorphisms contribute to an increased risk of T2DM. Future studies should investigate this issue in more regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Genomics and Genetic Diseases)
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754 KiB  
Review
Primetime for Learning Genes
by Joyce Keifer
Genes 2017, 8(2), 69; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020069 - 11 Feb 2017
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5307
Abstract
Learning genes in mature neurons are uniquely suited to respond rapidly to specific environmental stimuli. Expression of individual learning genes, therefore, requires regulatory mechanisms that have the flexibility to respond with transcriptional activation or repression to select appropriate physiological and behavioral responses. Among [...] Read more.
Learning genes in mature neurons are uniquely suited to respond rapidly to specific environmental stimuli. Expression of individual learning genes, therefore, requires regulatory mechanisms that have the flexibility to respond with transcriptional activation or repression to select appropriate physiological and behavioral responses. Among the mechanisms that equip genes to respond adaptively are bivalent domains. These are specific histone modifications localized to gene promoters that are characteristic of both gene activation and repression, and have been studied primarily for developmental genes in embryonic stem cells. In this review, studies of the epigenetic regulation of learning genes in neurons, particularly the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene (BDNF), by methylation/demethylation and chromatin modifications in the context of learning and memory will be highlighted. Because of the unique function of learning genes in the mature brain, it is proposed that bivalent domains are a characteristic feature of the chromatin landscape surrounding their promoters. This allows them to be “poised” for rapid response to activate or repress gene expression depending on environmental stimuli. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Role of Epigenetic Gene Regulation in Brain Function)
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Article
Differential Binding of Three Major Human ADAR Isoforms to Coding and Long Non-Coding Transcripts
by Josephine Galipon, Rintaro Ishii, Yutaka Suzuki, Masaru Tomita and Kumiko Ui-Tei
Genes 2017, 8(2), 68; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020068 - 11 Feb 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 9021
Abstract
RNA editing by deamination of adenosine to inosine is an evolutionarily conserved process involved in many cellular pathways, from alternative splicing to miRNA targeting. In humans, it is carried out by no less than three major adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs): ADAR1-p150, [...] Read more.
RNA editing by deamination of adenosine to inosine is an evolutionarily conserved process involved in many cellular pathways, from alternative splicing to miRNA targeting. In humans, it is carried out by no less than three major adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs): ADAR1-p150, ADAR1-p110, and ADAR2. However, the first two derive from alternative splicing, so that it is currently impossible to delete ADAR1-p110 without also knocking out ADAR1-p150 expression. Furthermore, the expression levels of ADARs varies wildly among cell types, and no study has systematically explored the effect of each of these isoforms on the cell transcriptome. In this study, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP)-sequencing on overexpressed ADAR isoforms tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) shows that each ADAR is associated with a specific set of differentially expressed genes, and that they each bind to distinct set of RNA targets. Our results show a good overlap with known edited transcripts, establishing RIP-seq as a valid method for the investigation of RNA editing biology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue RNA Editing)
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2472 KiB  
Review
2′-O-Methyl RNA/Ethylene-Bridged Nucleic Acid Chimera Antisense Oligonucleotides to Induce Dystrophin Exon 45 Skipping
by Tomoko Lee, Hiroyuki Awano, Mariko Yagi, Masaaki Matsumoto, Nobuaki Watanabe, Ryoya Goda, Makoto Koizumi, Yasuhiro Takeshima and Masafumi Matsuo
Genes 2017, 8(2), 67; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020067 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7134
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal muscle-wasting disease characterized by dystrophin deficiency from mutations in the dystrophin gene. Antisense oligonucleotide (AO)-mediated exon skipping targets restoration of the dystrophin reading frame to allow production of an internally deleted dystrophin protein with functional benefit [...] Read more.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal muscle-wasting disease characterized by dystrophin deficiency from mutations in the dystrophin gene. Antisense oligonucleotide (AO)-mediated exon skipping targets restoration of the dystrophin reading frame to allow production of an internally deleted dystrophin protein with functional benefit for DMD patients who have out-of-frame deletions. After accelerated US approval of eteplirsen (Exondys 51), which targets dystrophin exon 51 for skipping, efforts are now focused on targeting other exons. For improved clinical benefits, this strategy requires more studies of the delivery method and modification of nucleic acids. We studied a nucleotide with a 2′-O,4′-C-ethylene-bridged nucleic acid (ENA), which shows high nuclease resistance and high affinity for complementary RNA strands. Here, we describe the process of developing a 2′-O-methyl RNA(2′-OMeRNA)/ENA chimera AO to induce dystrophin exon 45 skipping. One 18-mer 2′-OMeRNA/ENA chimera (AO85) had the most potent activity for inducing exon 45 skipping in cultured myotubes. AO85 was administered to mdx mice without significant side effects. AO85 transfection into cultured myotubes from 13 DMD patients induced exon 45 skipping in all samples at different levels and dystrophin expression in 11 patients. These results suggest the possible efficacy of AO-mediated exon skipping changes in individual patients and highlight the 2′-OMeRNA/ENA chimera AO as a potential fundamental treatment for DMD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Therapeutic Alternative Splicing: Mechanisms and Applications)
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Review
Advances in Non-Viral DNA Vectors for Gene Therapy
by Cinnamon L. Hardee, Lirio Milenka Arévalo-Soliz, Benjamin D. Hornstein and Lynn Zechiedrich
Genes 2017, 8(2), 65; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020065 - 10 Feb 2017
Cited by 260 | Viewed by 18270
Abstract
Uses of viral vectors have thus far eclipsed uses of non-viral vectors for gene therapy delivery in the clinic. Viral vectors, however, have certain issues involving genome integration, the inability to be delivered repeatedly, and possible host rejection. Fortunately, development of non-viral DNA [...] Read more.
Uses of viral vectors have thus far eclipsed uses of non-viral vectors for gene therapy delivery in the clinic. Viral vectors, however, have certain issues involving genome integration, the inability to be delivered repeatedly, and possible host rejection. Fortunately, development of non-viral DNA vectors has progressed steadily, especially in plasmid vector length reduction, now allowing these tools to fill in specifically where viral or other non-viral vectors may not be the best options. In this review, we examine the improvements made to non-viral DNA gene therapy vectors, highlight opportunities for their further development, address therapeutic needs for which their use is the logical choice, and discuss their future expansion into the clinic Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gene Therapy)
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Review
Dynamics of p53: A Master Decider of Cell Fate
by Qingyin Luo, Jill M. Beaver, Yuan Liu and Zunzhen Zhang
Genes 2017, 8(2), 66; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020066 - 09 Feb 2017
Cited by 56 | Viewed by 6517
Abstract
Cellular stress‐induced temporal alterations—i.e., dynamics—are typically exemplified by the dynamics of p53 that serve as a master to determine cell fate. p53 dynamics were initially identified as the variations of p53 protein levels. However, a growing number of studies have shown that p53 [...] Read more.
Cellular stress‐induced temporal alterations—i.e., dynamics—are typically exemplified by the dynamics of p53 that serve as a master to determine cell fate. p53 dynamics were initially identified as the variations of p53 protein levels. However, a growing number of studies have shown that p53 dynamics are also manifested in variations in the activity, spatial location, and posttranslational modifications of p53 proteins, as well as the interplay among all p53 dynamical features. These are essential in determining a specific outcome of cell fate. In this review, we discuss the importance of the multifaceted features of p53 dynamics and their roles in the cell fate decision process, as well as their potential applications in p53‐based cancer therapy. The review provides new insights into p53 signaling pathways and their potentials in the development of new strategies in p53‐based cancer therapy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Genetics and Genomics)
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Review
Mechanisms of Post-Replication DNA Repair
by Yanzhe Gao, Elizabeth Mutter-Rottmayer, Anastasia Zlatanou, Cyrus Vaziri and Yang Yang
Genes 2017, 8(2), 64; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020064 - 08 Feb 2017
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 12696
Abstract
Accurate DNA replication is crucial for cell survival and the maintenance of genome stability. Cells have developed mechanisms to cope with the frequent genotoxic injuries that arise from both endogenous and environmental sources. Lesions encountered during DNA replication are often tolerated by post-replication [...] Read more.
Accurate DNA replication is crucial for cell survival and the maintenance of genome stability. Cells have developed mechanisms to cope with the frequent genotoxic injuries that arise from both endogenous and environmental sources. Lesions encountered during DNA replication are often tolerated by post-replication repair mechanisms that prevent replication fork collapse and avert the formation of DNA double strand breaks. There are two predominant post-replication repair pathways, trans-lesion synthesis (TLS) and template switching (TS). TLS is a DNA damage-tolerant and low-fidelity mode of DNA synthesis that utilizes specialized ‘Y-family’ DNA polymerases to replicate damaged templates. TS, however, is an error-free ‘DNA damage avoidance’ mode of DNA synthesis that uses a newly synthesized sister chromatid as a template in lieu of the damaged parent strand. Both TLS and TS pathways are tightly controlled signaling cascades that integrate DNA synthesis with the overall DNA damage response and are thus crucial for genome stability. This review will cover the current knowledge of the primary mediators of post-replication repair and how they are regulated in the cell. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Review
AAV Vector-Mediated Gene Delivery to Substantia Nigra Dopamine Neurons: Implications for Gene Therapy and Disease Models
by Katrina Albert, Merja H. Voutilainen, Andrii Domanskyi and Mikko Airavaara
Genes 2017, 8(2), 63; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020063 - 08 Feb 2017
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 9487
Abstract
Gene delivery using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors is a widely used method to transduce neurons in the brain, especially due to its safety, efficacy, and long-lasting expression. In addition, by varying AAV serotype, promotor, and titer, it is possible to affect the cell [...] Read more.
Gene delivery using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors is a widely used method to transduce neurons in the brain, especially due to its safety, efficacy, and long-lasting expression. In addition, by varying AAV serotype, promotor, and titer, it is possible to affect the cell specificity of expression or the expression levels of the protein of interest. Dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra projecting to the striatum, comprising the nigrostriatal pathway, are involved in movement control and degenerate in Parkinson′s disease. AAV-based gene targeting to the projection area of these neurons in the striatum has been studied extensively to induce the production of neurotrophic factors for disease-modifying therapies for Parkinson′s disease. Much less emphasis has been put on AAV-based gene therapy targeting dopamine neurons in substantia nigra. We will review the literature related to targeting striatum and/or substantia nigra dopamine neurons using AAVs in order to express neuroprotective and neurorestorative molecules, as well as produce animal disease models of Parkinson′s disease. We discuss difficulties in targeting substantia nigra dopamine neurons and their vulnerability to stress in general. Therefore, choosing a proper control for experimental work is not trivial. Since the axons along the nigrostriatal tract are the first to degenerate in Parkinson′s disease, the location to deliver the therapy must be carefully considered. We also review studies using AAV-a-synuclein (a-syn) to target substantia nigra dopamine neurons to produce an α-syn overexpression disease model in rats. Though these studies are able to produce mild dopamine system degeneration in the striatum and substantia nigra and some behavioural effects, there are studies pointing to the toxicity of AAV-carrying green fluorescent protein (GFP), which is often used as a control. Therefore, we discuss the potential difficulties in overexpressing proteins in general in the substantia nigra. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Genomics and Genetic Diseases)
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Review
Elaborated Action of the Human Primosome
by Andrey G. Baranovskiy and Tahir H. Tahirov
Genes 2017, 8(2), 62; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020062 - 08 Feb 2017
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6770
Abstract
The human primosome is a 340-kilodalton complex of primase (DNA-dependent RNA polymerase) and DNA polymerase α, which initiates genome replication by synthesizing chimeric RNA-DNA primers for DNA polymerases δ and ϵ. Accumulated biochemical and structural data reveal the complex mechanism of concerted primer [...] Read more.
The human primosome is a 340-kilodalton complex of primase (DNA-dependent RNA polymerase) and DNA polymerase α, which initiates genome replication by synthesizing chimeric RNA-DNA primers for DNA polymerases δ and ϵ. Accumulated biochemical and structural data reveal the complex mechanism of concerted primer synthesis by two catalytic centers. First, primase generates an RNA primer through three steps: initiation, consisting of dinucleotide synthesis from two nucleotide triphosphates; elongation, resulting in dinucleotide extension; and termination, owing to primase inhibition by a mature 9-mer primer. Then Polα, which works equally well on DNA:RNA and DNA:DNA double helices, intramolecularly catches the template primed by a 9mer RNA and extends the primer with dNTPs. All primosome transactions are highly coordinated by autoregulation through the alternating activation/inhibition of the catalytic centers. This coordination is mediated by the small C-terminal domain of the primase accessory subunit, which forms a tight complex with the template:primer, shuttles between the primase and DNA polymerase active sites, and determines their access to the substrate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Article
In Vivo Imaging of Local Gene Expression Induced by Magnetic Hyperthermia
by Olivier Sandre, Coralie Genevois, Eneko Garaio, Laurent Adumeau, Stéphane Mornet and Franck Couillaud
Genes 2017, 8(2), 61; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020061 - 08 Feb 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5803
Abstract
The present work aims to demonstrate that colloidal dispersions of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles stabilized with dextran macromolecules placed in an alternating magnetic field can not only produce heat, but also that these particles could be used in vivo for local and noninvasive [...] Read more.
The present work aims to demonstrate that colloidal dispersions of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles stabilized with dextran macromolecules placed in an alternating magnetic field can not only produce heat, but also that these particles could be used in vivo for local and noninvasive deposition of a thermal dose sufficient to trigger thermo-induced gene expression. Iron oxide nanoparticles were first characterized in vitro on a bio-inspired setup, and then they were assayed in vivo using a transgenic mouse strain expressing the luciferase reporter gene under transcriptional control of a thermosensitive promoter. Iron oxide nanoparticles dispersions were applied topically on the mouse skin or injected subcutaneously with Matrigel™ to generate so-called pseudotumors. Temperature was monitored continuously with a feedback loop to control the power of the magnetic field generator and to avoid overheating. Thermo-induced luciferase expression was followed by bioluminescence imaging 6 h after heating. We showed that dextran-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle dispersions were able to induce in vivo mild hyperthermia compatible with thermo-induced gene expression in surrounding tissues and without impairing cell viability. These data open new therapeutic perspectives for using mild magnetic hyperthermia as noninvasive modulation of tumor microenvironment by local thermo-induced gene expression or drug release. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Genomics and Genetic Diseases)
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Review
Altered Intracellular Milieu of ADAR2-Deficient Motor Neurons in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
by Takenari Yamashita, Megumi Akamatsu and Shin Kwak
Genes 2017, 8(2), 60; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020060 - 08 Feb 2017
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7963
Abstract
Transactive response DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) pathology, and failure of A-to-I conversion (RNA editing) at the glutamine/arginine (Q/R) site of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit GluA2, are etiology-linked molecular abnormalities that concomitantly occur in the motor neurons of most patients with amyotrophic lateral [...] Read more.
Transactive response DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) pathology, and failure of A-to-I conversion (RNA editing) at the glutamine/arginine (Q/R) site of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptor subunit GluA2, are etiology-linked molecular abnormalities that concomitantly occur in the motor neurons of most patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Adenosine deaminase acting on RNA 2 (ADAR2) specifically catalyzes GluA2 Q/R site-RNA editing. Furthermore, conditional ADAR2 knockout mice (AR2) exhibit a progressive ALS phenotype with TDP-43 pathology in the motor neurons, which is the most reliable pathological marker of ALS. Therefore, the evidence indicates that ADAR2 downregulation is a causative factor in ALS, and AR2 mice exhibit causative molecular changes that occur in ALS. We discuss the contributors to ADAR2 downregulation and TDP-43 pathology in AR2 mouse motor neurons. We describe mechanisms of exaggerated Ca2+ influx amelioration via AMPA receptors, which is neuroprotective in ADAR2-deficient motor neurons with normalization of TDP-43 pathology in AR2 mice. Development of drugs to treat diseases requires appropriate animal models and a sensitive method of evaluating efficacy. Therefore, normalization of disrupted intracellular environments resulting from ADAR2 downregulation may be a therapeutic target for ALS. We discuss the development of targeted therapy for ALS using the AR2 mouse model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue RNA Editing)
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Article
An Exploratory Study to Determine Whether BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Carriers Have Higher Risk of Cardiac Toxicity
by Monique Sajjad, Michael Fradley, Weihong Sun, Jongphil Kim, Xiuhua Zhao, Tuya Pal and Roohi Ismail-Khan
Genes 2017, 8(2), 59; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020059 - 02 Feb 2017
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3982
Abstract
Anthracycline-based cardiotoxicity is concerning for women with breast cancer and portends a dose-dependent risk of developing left ventricular dysfunction. Overall, the prevalence of heart failure (HF) is ≈2% of the total US population; however, BRCA-deficient mice have shown increased HF. We evaluated for [...] Read more.
Anthracycline-based cardiotoxicity is concerning for women with breast cancer and portends a dose-dependent risk of developing left ventricular dysfunction. Overall, the prevalence of heart failure (HF) is ≈2% of the total US population; however, BRCA-deficient mice have shown increased HF. We evaluated for the inherent risk of HF in women with BRCA mutations to determine whether treatment with anthracycline-based therapy increased this risk. We obtained results on BRCA mutation carriers regarding cancer treatment and HF, identified through the BRCA patient advocacy organization Facing Our Risk for Cancer Empowered (FORCE) and the Moffittbased Inherited Cancer Registry. In our patient group (232 BRCA1 and 159 BRCA2 patients; 10 with both mutations), 7.7% reported HF, with similar proportions in BRCA1 versus BRCA2 carriers (7.4% and 8.2%, respectively). These proportions are significantly higher than published rates (p < 0.001). There was no statistically significant difference in HF rates comparing anthracycline-treated versus anthracycline-naïve patients however (7.1% vs. 8.3%; p = 0.67). In addition, 9.1% of BRCA1 carriers and 8.2% of BRCA2 carriers reported arrhythmias. BRCA mutation carriers showed increased risk of cardiotoxicity versus the general population and an overall increased risk of cardiotoxicity from anthracycline-based therapy. Our study supports data that BRCA carriers have increased noncancer mortality from cardiotoxicity. A prospective trial to determine HF and conduction abnormalities in this population is warranted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cancer Genetics)
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Erratum
Erratum Xu T. et al. Cloning and Expression Analysis of MEP Pathway Enzyme-encoding Genes in Osmanthus fragrans. Genes 2016, 7, 78
by Chen Xu, Huogen Li, Xiulian Yang, Chunsun Gu, Hongna Mu, Yuanzheng Yue and Lianggui Wang
Genes 2017, 8(2), 58; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020058 - 02 Feb 2017
Viewed by 3024
Abstract
The authors wish to make the following correction to their paper [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Genetics and Genomics)
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Review
A Critical Balance: dNTPs and the Maintenance of Genome Stability
by Chen‐Chun Pai and Stephen E. Kearsey
Genes 2017, 8(2), 57; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020057 - 31 Jan 2017
Cited by 94 | Viewed by 10703
Abstract
A crucial factor in maintaining genome stability is establishing deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) levels within a range that is optimal for chromosomal replication. Since DNA replication is relevant to a wide range of other chromosomal activities, these may all be directly or indirectly affected [...] Read more.
A crucial factor in maintaining genome stability is establishing deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) levels within a range that is optimal for chromosomal replication. Since DNA replication is relevant to a wide range of other chromosomal activities, these may all be directly or indirectly affected when dNTP concentrations deviate from a physiologically normal range. The importance of understanding these consequences is relevant to genetic disorders that disturb dNTP levels, and strategies that inhibit dNTP synthesis in cancer chemotherapy and for treatment of other disorders. We review here how abnormal dNTP levels affect DNA replication and discuss the consequences for genome stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Review
Diversity of DNA Replication in the Archaea
by Darya Ausiannikava and Thorsten Allers
Genes 2017, 8(2), 56; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020056 - 31 Jan 2017
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 10137
Abstract
DNA replication is arguably the most fundamental biological process. On account of their shared evolutionary ancestry, the replication machinery found in archaea is similar to that found in eukaryotes. DNA replication is initiated at origins and is highly conserved in eukaryotes, but our [...] Read more.
DNA replication is arguably the most fundamental biological process. On account of their shared evolutionary ancestry, the replication machinery found in archaea is similar to that found in eukaryotes. DNA replication is initiated at origins and is highly conserved in eukaryotes, but our limited understanding of archaea has uncovered a wide diversity of replication initiation mechanisms. Archaeal origins are sequence‐based, as in bacteria, but are bound by initiator proteins that share homology with the eukaryotic origin recognition complex subunit Orc1 and helicase loader Cdc6). Unlike bacteria, archaea may have multiple origins per chromosome and multiple Orc1/Cdc6 initiator proteins. There is no consensus on how these archaeal origins are recognised— some are bound by a single Orc1/Cdc6 protein while others require a multi‐ Orc1/Cdc6 complex. Many archaeal genomes consist of multiple parts—the main chromosome plus several megaplasmids—and in polyploid species these parts are present in multiple copies. This poses a challenge to the regulation of DNA replication. However, one archaeal species (Haloferax volcanii) can survive without replication origins; instead, it uses homologous recombination as an alternative mechanism of initiation. This diversity in DNA replication initiation is all the more remarkable for having been discovered in only three groups of archaea where in vivo studies are possible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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Review
Solving the Telomere Replication Problem
by Laetitia Maestroni, Samah Matmati and Stéphane Coulon
Genes 2017, 8(2), 55; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/genes8020055 - 31 Jan 2017
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 10059
Abstract
Telomeres are complex nucleoprotein structures that protect the extremities of linear chromosomes. Telomere replication is a major challenge because many obstacles to the progression of the replication fork are concentrated at the ends of the chromosomes. This is known as the telomere replication [...] Read more.
Telomeres are complex nucleoprotein structures that protect the extremities of linear chromosomes. Telomere replication is a major challenge because many obstacles to the progression of the replication fork are concentrated at the ends of the chromosomes. This is known as the telomere replication problem. In this article, different and new aspects of telomere replication, that can threaten the integrity of telomeres, will be reviewed. In particular, we will focus on the functions of shelterin and the replisome for the preservation of telomere integrity Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue DNA Replication Controls)
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