Figure 1.
Simplified geological map of the Kivi area with streams. (Left: by Time, Right: by lithology).
Figure 1.
Simplified geological map of the Kivi area with streams. (Left: by Time, Right: by lithology).
Figure 2.
Topographical map showing the location of stream sediment samples in the Kivi area.
Figure 2.
Topographical map showing the location of stream sediment samples in the Kivi area.
Figure 3.
The threshold of outlier values (g) as a function of the sample number (n) and the level of accuracy.
Figure 3.
The threshold of outlier values (g) as a function of the sample number (n) and the level of accuracy.
Figure 4.
Hierarchical clustering strategies.
Figure 4.
Hierarchical clustering strategies.
Figure 5.
Steps in discriminant analysis.
Figure 5.
Steps in discriminant analysis.
Figure 6.
Schematic image of the separation of two communities by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) method.
Figure 6.
Schematic image of the separation of two communities by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) method.
Figure 7.
Probability diagram and in non-logarithmic histogram for Ti element.
Figure 7.
Probability diagram and in non-logarithmic histogram for Ti element.
Figure 8.
Probability diagram and in non-logarithmic histogram for Zn element.
Figure 8.
Probability diagram and in non-logarithmic histogram for Zn element.
Figure 9.
Hierarchical diagram of the elements in the Kivi area.
Figure 9.
Hierarchical diagram of the elements in the Kivi area.
Figure 10.
The scree plot of Principal Components Analysis (PCA) on elements.
Figure 10.
The scree plot of Principal Components Analysis (PCA) on elements.
Figure 11.
Separation of titanium element communities on the probability diagram.
Figure 11.
Separation of titanium element communities on the probability diagram.
Figure 12.
Separation of zinc element communities on the probability diagram.
Figure 12.
Separation of zinc element communities on the probability diagram.
Figure 13.
Separated communities of titanium element using LDA method.
Figure 13.
Separated communities of titanium element using LDA method.
Figure 14.
Separated communities of titanium element with name of members.
Figure 14.
Separated communities of titanium element with name of members.
Figure 15.
Separated communities of zinc element using LDA method.
Figure 15.
Separated communities of zinc element using LDA method.
Figure 16.
Separated communities of zinc element with name of members.
Figure 16.
Separated communities of zinc element with name of members.
Figure 17.
Map showing the distribution of Ti anomalous stream sediment samples.
Figure 17.
Map showing the distribution of Ti anomalous stream sediment samples.
Figure 18.
Anomalous samples of zinc element.
Figure 18.
Anomalous samples of zinc element.
Figure 19.
Display zinc (yellow) and titanium (red) anomal points together.
Figure 19.
Display zinc (yellow) and titanium (red) anomal points together.
Figure 20.
Small to large titanium concentrations in the streams and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 20.
Small to large titanium concentrations in the streams and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 21.
Small to large zinc concentrations in the streams and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 21.
Small to large zinc concentrations in the streams and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 22.
Small to large titanium concentrations on the lithology map and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 22.
Small to large titanium concentrations on the lithology map and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 23.
Small to large zinc concentrations on the lithology map and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 23.
Small to large zinc concentrations on the lithology map and determined anomalous areas.
Figure 24.
Red, green, and blue colors (RGB) = 6/7, 6/4, 4/2 illuminates altered rocks as blue in image, yellow color lines are considered as vegetation.
Figure 24.
Red, green, and blue colors (RGB) = 6/7, 6/4, 4/2 illuminates altered rocks as blue in image, yellow color lines are considered as vegetation.
Figure 25.
RGB = 7, 5, 3 as derived from Operational land imager (OLI) data delineates altered rocks as bright white color; dark violet represents basalt, andesite, and thick bedded volcanic conglomerate rock units.
Figure 25.
RGB = 7, 5, 3 as derived from Operational land imager (OLI) data delineates altered rocks as bright white color; dark violet represents basalt, andesite, and thick bedded volcanic conglomerate rock units.
Figure 26.
RGB = PC1, PC2, and PC3, showing different rock classes in a variant range.
Figure 26.
RGB = PC1, PC2, and PC3, showing different rock classes in a variant range.
Figure 27.
Alteration density map driven from band ratios and developed selective PCA (DSPCA) for detecting clay minerals in study area. Red color stands for extensive clay mineral overlay.
Figure 27.
Alteration density map driven from band ratios and developed selective PCA (DSPCA) for detecting clay minerals in study area. Red color stands for extensive clay mineral overlay.
Table 1.
Element determined on the stream sediment samples (N = 714).
Table 1.
Element determined on the stream sediment samples (N = 714).
Elements |
---|
Ag | Al | As | Au | Ba | B | Be | Bi | Br | Ca | Cd | Ce | Co | Cr |
Cs | Cu | Eu | F | Fe | Ga | Ge | Hf | Hg | In | Ir | K | La | Li |
Mg | Mn | Mo | Na | Nb | Nd | Ni | Os | P | Pb | Pd | Pr | Pt | Rb |
Re | Ru | S | Sb | Sc | Se | Si | Sn | Sr | Ta | Te | Th | Ti | Tl |
U | V | W | Y | Yb | Zn | Zr | | | | | | | |
Table 2.
Analyzed elements after initial refinement.
Table 2.
Analyzed elements after initial refinement.
Elements |
---|
Ag | As | Au | Ba | Be | Co | Cr | Cu | Mn | Mo |
Ni | Pb | Sb | Se | Sn | Sr | Ti | W | Zn | |
Table 3.
Single-variable statistics parameters and anomalous limits for elements in drainage sediments.
Table 3.
Single-variable statistics parameters and anomalous limits for elements in drainage sediments.
Elements | Mean | Median | Mode | Min | Max | Varance (ppm)2 | Skewness | Kurtosis | Standard Deviation (ppm) | CV | Anomalous Limit (ppm) | Anomal Priority |
---|
ppm |
---|
Ag | 0 | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 4.80 | 0.079 | 10.84 | 147.2 | 0.2803 | 140.17 | 0.1 | 7 |
As | 15 | 10.85 | 4.9 | 0.50 | 175 | 250.78 | 4.35 | 26.92 | 15.84 | 102.83 | 1 to 50 | 8 |
Au | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.000 | 3.34 | 18.90 | 0.0018 | 78.87 | - | - |
Ba | 657 | 661 | 628 | 169 | 1480 | 42,519.1 | 0.195 | −0.005 | 206.21 | 31.41 | 100 to 3000 | Suspicious |
Be | 2 | 1.9 | 2.00 | 1 | 14 | 1.49 | 3.97 | 21.84 | 1.22 | 55.52 | 6 | - |
Co | 18 | 16.65 | 17 | 3.5 | 62.2 | 53.47 | 1.20 | 2.55 | 7.31 | 40.62 | 1 to 40 | Suspicious |
Cr | 73 | 48 | 40 | 11 | 1100 | 7155.69 | 5.18 | 41.83 | 84.59 | 116.52 | 5 to 1000 | 3 |
Cu | 80 | 70 | 112 | 13 | 222 | 1756.87 | 0.94 | 0.32 | 41.92 | 52.39 | 2 to 100 | 5 |
Mn | 989 | 956 | 1000 | 449 | 3160 | 52,997.3 | 2.27 | 13.03 | 230.21 | 23.28 | 850 | 4 |
Mo | 2 | 1.90 | 1.5 | 0.1 | 38.6 | 3.48 | 10.77 | 202.7 | 1.86 | 83.99 | 2 | 6 |
Ni | 35 | 27 | 21 | 9 | 210 | 751.77 | 3.2 | 11.81 | 27.42 | 79.48 | 5 to 500 | Suspicious |
Pb | 16 | 15.4 | 15.1 | 5.9 | 56.2 | 20.46 | 2.36 | 14.54 | 4.52 | 28.63 | 2 to 200 | - |
Sb | 2 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 25.3 | 5.68 | 3.67 | 19.99 | 2.38 | 113.53 | 5 | - |
Se | 1 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 1.8 | 0.07 | 0.41 | 0.3 | 0.26 | 38.45 | - | - |
Sn | 2 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 8.2 | 0.55 | 2.99 | 12.83 | 0.74 | 41.35 | 10 | - |
Sr | 501 | 490.5 | 464 | 70 | 1030 | 28,067.92 | 0.17 | 0.061 | 167.53 | 33.44 | 50 to 1000 | 4 |
Ti | 5683 | 5440 | 5580 | 1940 | 21,700 | 2,938,249 | 2.60 | 16.79 | 1714.13 | 30.16 | 5000 | 1 |
W | 3 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 0.8 | 9.6 | 1.59 | 2.204 | 6.59 | 1.26 | 48.55 | - | - |
Zn | 183.8 | 200.4 | 118 | 102.3 | 468 | 10.43 | 6.99 | 8.66 | 7.00 | 33.95 | 10 to 300 | 2 |
Table 4.
Correlation coefficients of the studied elements.
Table 4.
Correlation coefficients of the studied elements.
Elements | Ag | As | Au | Ba | Be | Co | Cr | Cu | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Se | Sn | Sr | Ti | W | Zn |
---|
Ag | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
As | 0.128 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Au | 0.020 | 0.09 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Ba | 0.085 | 0.277 | −0.091 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Be | 0.128 | 0.182 | 0.1 | 0.21 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Co | −0.19 | −0.128 | −0.035 | −0.271 | −0.646 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Cr | −0.089 | −0.064 | −0.073 | −0.327 | −0.563 | 0.678 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Cu | 0.171 | 0.048 | 0.019 | 0.516 | −0.004 | 0.063 | −0.15 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | | |
Mn | −0.112 | −0.061 | 0.015 | −0.092 | −0.097 | 0.526 | 0.387 | −0.045 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | | |
Mo | 0.295 | 0.241 | 0.021 | 0.081 | 0.523 | −0.381 | −0.194 | 0.001 | −0.046 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | | |
Ni | −0.083 | −0.138 | −0.013 | −0.442 | −0.463 | 0.581 | 0.822 | −0.261 | 0.319 | −0.248 | 1.000 | | | | | | | | |
Pb | 0.248 | 0.307 | 0.08 | 0.345 | 0.689 | −0.518 | −0.359 | 0.011 | −0.082 | 0.506 | −0.308 | 1.000 | | | | | | | |
Sb | 0.217 | 0.655 | 0.070 | 0.015 | 0.058 | −0.159 | 0.068 | −0.232 | −0.11 | 0.283 | 0.018 | 0.18 | 1.000 | | | | | | |
Se | 0.294 | −0.077 | 0.028 | −0.256 | 0.033 | 0.007 | 0.097 | −0.161 | 0.1 | 0.213 | 0.133 | 0.034 | 0.048 | 1.000 | | | | | |
Sn | 0.256 | 0.226 | 0.068 | 0.003 | 0.64 | −0.375 | −0.169 | −0.188 | 0.010 | 0.555 | −0.181 | 0.632 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 1.000 | | | | |
Sr | −0.146 | −0.242 | −0.088 | 0.403 | −0.236 | 0.253 | 0.055 | 0.429 | 0.102 | −0.184 | 0.039 | −0.192 | −0.37 | −0.106 | −0.336 | 1.000 | | | |
Ti | −0.072 | 0.007 | −0.072 | −0.033 | −0.259 | 0.567 | 0.528 | −0.013 | 0.524 | −0.028 | 0.307 | −0.153 | 0.051 | −0.045 | 0.039 | 0.154 | 1.000 | | |
W | 0.183 | 0.409 | 0.109 | 0.189 | 0.697 | −0.569 | −0.382 | −0.105 | −0.176 | 0.526 | −0.35 | 0.631 | 0.361 | 0.078 | 0.638 | −0.263 | −0.229 | 1.000 | |
Zn | 0.065 | −0.076 | 0.042 | −0.252 | −0.050 | 0.42 | 0.411 | −0.053 | 0.534 | 0.058 | 0.318 | 0.064 | −0.033 | 0.186 | 0.207 | −0.033 | 0.618 | −0.161 | 1.000 |
Table 5.
Principal Components and their eigen values.
Table 5.
Principal Components and their eigen values.
Elements | PC |
---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|
Ag | 0.011 | −0.061 | 0.134 | 0.174 | 0.097 | 0.827 |
As | 0.084 | −0.006 | 0.084 | −0.014 | 0.825 | −0.029 |
Au | −0.132 | 0.119 | −0.294 | −0.395 | 0.353 | 0.211 |
Ba | −0.007 | −0.081 | 0.838 | −0.182 | 0.144 | −0.156 |
Be | 0.803 | −0.110 | −0.301 | −0.178 | −0.147 | 0.011 |
Co | −0.485 | 0.338 | −0.118 | 0.426 | −0.101 | −0.007 |
Cr | −0.177 | 0.306 | −0.170 | 0.784 | 0.031 | 0.064 |
Cu | −0.140 | −0.038 | 0.750 | −0.113 | −0.063 | 0.112 |
Mn | −0.013 | 0.851 | −0.026 | 0.077 | −0.094 | -0.012 |
Mo | 0.662 | 0.004 | 0.097 | 0.151 | 0.085 | 0.095 |
Ni | −0.182 | 0.178 | −0.242 | 0.827 | −0.043 | 0.088 |
Pb | 0.688 | 0.161 | 0.244 | −0.169 | 0.374 | 0.005 |
Sb | 0.147 | −0.003 | −0.091 | −0.017 | 0.842 | −0.010 |
Se | 0.170 | 0.095 | −0.302 | −0.128 | −0.153 | 0.598 |
Sn | 0.812 | 0.138 | −0.261 | −0.161 | −0.047 | 0.054 |
Sr | −0.414 | 0.228 | 0.557 | −0.050 | −0.277 | −0.095 |
Ti | −0.045 | 0.805 | 0.078 | 0.206 | 0.017 | −0.023 |
W | 0.766 | −0.082 | −0.200 | −0.203 | 0.224 | −0.004 |
Zn | 0.221 | 0.826 | −0.067 | −0.003 | 0.152 | 0.071 |
Table 6.
Anomalous values for titanium and zinc elements (ppm).
Table 6.
Anomalous values for titanium and zinc elements (ppm).
Background | Anomaly 1 | Anomaly 2 | Elements |
---|
5000 | 7800 | Upper 7800 | Ti |
100 | 120 | Upper 120 | Zn |
Table 7.
LDA titanium communities cross validation.
Table 7.
LDA titanium communities cross validation.
Titanium Groups | Predicted Group Membership | Total |
---|
First | Second | Third |
---|
CrossValidation | Count | First | 237 | 14 | 0 | 251 |
Second | 33 | 369 | 1 | 403 |
Third | 0 | 1 | 59 | 60 |
Percentage | First | 94.4 | 5.6 | 0 | 100 |
Second | 8.2 | 91.6 | 0.2 | 100 |
Third | 0 | 1.7 | 98.3 | 100 |
Table 8.
LDA zinc communities cross validation.
Table 8.
LDA zinc communities cross validation.
Zinc Groups | Predicted Group Membership | Total |
---|
First | Second | Third |
---|
Cross Validation | Count | First | 574 | 53 | 0 | 627 |
Second | 3 | 57 | 0 | 60 |
Third | 0 | 1 | 26 | 27 |
Percentage | First | 91.5 | 8.5 | 0 | 100 |
Second | 5 | 95 | 0 | 100 |
Third | 0 | 3.7 | 96.3 | 100 |
Table 9.
PCA eigenvector matrix for Kivi area.
Table 9.
PCA eigenvector matrix for Kivi area.
Principal Components | Second Band | Fifth Band | Sixth Band | Seventh Band |
---|
First PC | +0.14 | +0.39 | +0.71 | +0.54 |
Second PC | +0.28 | +0.78 | −0.32 | −0.36 |
Third PC | +0.79 | −0.19 | −0.37 | +0.29 |
Forth PC | −0.37 | +0.24 | −0.66 | +0.68 |