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Article

Molecular Survey of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Ticks, Sheep Keds, and Domestic Animals from Ngawa, Southwest China

by
Miao Lu
1,†,
Junhua Tian
2,†,
Hongqing Zhao
1,†,
Hai Jiang
1,
Xincheng Qin
1,
Wen Wang
1 and
Kun Li
1,*
1
National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changping Liuzi 5 C, Beijing 102206, China
2
Wuhan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430024, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 606; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11050606
Submission received: 4 April 2022 / Revised: 13 May 2022 / Accepted: 17 May 2022 / Published: 22 May 2022
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Abstract

:
Vector-borne pathogens are mainly transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods such as ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, lice, mites, etc. They pose a significant threat to animal and human health due to their worldwide distribution. Although much work has been performed on these pathogens, some neglected areas and undiscovered pathogens are still to be further researched. In this study, ticks (Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis), sheep keds (Melophagus ovinus), and blood samples from yaks and goats were collected in Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture located on the eastern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Southwest China. Several vector-borne bacterial pathogens were screened and studied. Anaplasma bovis strains representing novel genotypes were detected in ticks (8.83%, 37/419), yak blood samples (45.71%, 64/140), and goat blood samples (58.93%, 33/56). Two spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsiae, Candidatus Rickettsia jingxinensis, and a novel Rickettsia species named Candidatus Rickettsia hongyuanensis were identified in ticks. Another Rickettsia species closely related to the Rickettsia endosymbiont of Polydesmus complanatus was also detected in ticks. Furthermore, a Coxiella species was detected in ticks (3.34%, 14/419), keds (1.89%, 2/106), and yak blood (0.71%, 1/140). Interestingly, another Coxiella species and a Coxiella-like bacterium were detected in a tick and a goat blood sample, respectively. These results indicate the remarkable diversity of vector-borne pathogens circulating in this area. Further investigations on their pathogenicity to humans and domestic animals are still needed.

1. Introduction

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are diseases transmitted by arthropods, mainly by hematophagous arthropods such as ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, sand flies, lice, and mites. Vector-borne pathogens include bacteria (Anaplasma, Rickettsia, Coxiella, Borrelia, etc.), viruses (dengue virus, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, etc.), protozoans (Plasmodium vivax, Leishmania donovani, etc.), and even parasitic helminths (Wuchereria bancrofti, etc.) [1,2,3]. Due to the wide geographical distribution of hematophagous arthropods, globally emerging VBDs infect millions of people annually, especially in developing countries, and hence represent a significant threat to human health. Currently, vector-borne bacterial pathogens of most concern in China include Rickettsia spp., Orientia spp. (family Rickettsiaceae), Anaplasma spp. (family Anaplasmataceae), and Coxiella spp. (family Coxiellaceae) [4,5]. Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. bovis, and spotted fever group Rickettsia have been frequently detected in ticks and animals from multiple provinces in China [6,7]. Cases of human infection with these pathogens have occasionally been reported [4,8]. Notably, domestic ungulates are often infected with Anaplasma spp., causing weight loss, abortion, reduced milk production, or even death, leading to numerous economic losses in the livestock industry annually [9]. Meanwhile, many infected domestic ungulates are permanently and asymptomatically infected. They may act as reservoirs and sources of pathogens for vectors in their life cycles. Meanwhile, Coxiella burnetii, the etiologic agent of Q fever, is the most notorious pathogen of the genus Coxiella [10]. As a worldwide distributed pathogen, it has been detected in multiple animal species, including goats, cattle, horses, deer, rodents, and even birds [11,12,13]. Coxiella burnetii infection in domestic animals is usually asymptomatic but may lead to infertility, abortion, and neonatal death [14], thus resulting in tremendous economic losses. Furthermore, human Q fever caused by C. burnetii is a worldwide zoonosis that has long been under-reported and underdiagnosed due to its non-specific symptoms.
Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture has an area of 84,242 km2. It is located in the northwest of Sichuan Province and on the eastern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China. The high altitude (982–6250 m, mostly 2500–4000 m) and the abundant grassland resources of Ngawa make animal husbandry the major income source for rural households. Yaks, goats, horses, and pigs are the common livestock animals in Ngawa. The frequent contact between herdsmen and livestock animals makes it possible for zoonotic and vector-borne pathogens to be easily transmitted from animals or their ectoparasites to humans. In recent years, some studies on vector-borne pathogens have been performed in some areas of the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau [15,16,17]. In 2016, Yang et al. reported a novel Anaplasma species closely related to A. capra in H. qinghaiensis ticks from Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture located in the east Qinghai–Tibet Plateau [15]. In 2020, diverse Bartonella species were detected in H. qinghaiensis and Dermacentor everestianus ticks collected in Shiqu County, located on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau in Ganze Prefecture [16]. However, except for one study on Theileria detected in H. qinghaiensis, D. everestianus, Rhipicephalus microplus, and Melophagus ovinus reported in 2020 [17], vector-borne pathogens in Ngawa remain understudied.
The objective of our study was to update the epidemiological profile of circulating bacterial VBDs in Ngawa. In this study, we collected ticks (H. qinghaiensis), sheep keds (Melophagus ovinus), and the blood of yaks and goats in Hongyuan County of Ngawa. The presence, prevalence, and genetic characteristics of several vector-borne bacterial pathogens were studied.

2. Results

2.1. Sample Collection

From February to March 2021, a total of 419 ticks (adults and nymphs) were collected from yaks (Bos mutus), and 106 keds were collected from goats (Capra hircus) in Hongyuan County of Ngawa, China (Figure 1). All ticks were morphologically determined to be H. qinghaiensis and further confirmed by analysis of the COI gene (accession numbers: ON358162-ON358175). All keds were morphologically identified as M. ovinus and molecularly confirmed (accession numbers: ON358236-ON358247). From March to May 2021, 140 and 56 blood samples were collected from apparently healthy yaks and goats, respectively.

2.2. PCR Detection

The PCR products of the 16S rDNA gene that met the expected lengths (Rickettsia: 900 bp; Anaplasma: 900 bp; Coxiella: 600 bp) were selected and subjected to sequencing. Anaplasma bovis was detected in 37 tick samples (8.83%, 37/419), 64 yak blood samples (45.71%, 64/140), and as many as 33 goat blood samples (58.93%, 33/56) (Table 1). All sequences of the 16S rDNA gene have the highest (99.21–100%) identity to A. bovis isolate Zhouzhi-goat-29 (MH255938.1) identified from goats in Shaanxi Province, China.
In total, three Rickettsia species, including Candidatus R. jingxinensis (0.48%, 2/419), SFG Rickettsia strain tick61 (0.24%, 1/419), and Rickettsia sp. strain tick14 (0.24%, 1/419), were identified in ticks (Table 1). Their 16S genes have the highest identities of 99.92% to Candidatus Rickettsia jingxinensis strains, 100% to uncultured Rickettsia sp. Hja 192 (LC379493.1) from Ha. japonica in Japan, and 99.83% to uncultured Rickettsiales bacterium clone LG127_1 (MK616427.1) from Pompholyxophrys punicea, respectively. Three Coxiella species were detected in these samples. A Coxiella strain closely related to Coxiella sp. isolate XinXian-HL9 (MG906671.1) identified from H. longicornis in China (with a sequence identity of 99.24–99.32% for the 16S gene) was detected in 14 of the tick samples (3.34%, 14/419), 2 of the ked samples (1.89%, 2/106), and 1 of the yak blood samples (0.71%, 1/140) (Table 1). Coxiella strain tick8, closely related to Coxiella endosymbionts, was detected in a tick sample with a 99.32% identity to the Coxiella endosymbiont of Rhipicephalus turanicus (JQ480818.1) and 99.24% identity to the Coxiella endosymbiont of Rhipicephalus microplus strain Porto Alegre (KY026064.1) and the Coxiella endosymbiont of Rhipicephalus australis isolate Rhaus2 (KP994830.1). Interestingly, Coxiella-like bacterium strain goat12 was identified from one goat blood sample, and the 16S rDNA shares the highest (96.77%) identity with C. burnetii strains (strain CB_25, strain CB_30, etc.).

2.3. Amplification of Key Genes and Genetic and Phylogenetic Analysis

For further characterization of the detected bacterial strains, sequences of groEL (769 bp) and gltA (826 bp) genes were recovered from randomly selected A. bovis strains from goats, yaks, and ticks. The gltA sequences have 92.23–92.74% identities to uncultured Anaplasma sp. clone 499 (JN588561.1) from raccoons in Japan. The groEL sequences have 95.54–96.49% similarities to A. bovis isolate Zhouzhi-goat-29 and 94.93–95.32% similarities to uncultured Anaplasma sp. clone 499 (JN588562.1) (Table S1). These results suggest that these strains are divergent from previously reported genotypes of A. bovis. As shown in the phylogenetic trees, the gltA and groEL genes are divided into two clusters (Figure 2). The A. bovis strains tick103, goat6, and goat9 belong to group 1, while strains goat8, goat10, yak30, and yak33 belong to group 2. Interestingly, the gltA gene of strain goat67 belongs to group 1, whereas its groEL gene is clustered in group 2.
A longer 16S fragment (1201 bp) and the groEL (656–1053 bp), gltA (1006 bp), ompA (705 bp), ompB (376 bp), and htrA (411 bp) genes were successfully recovered for the Rickettsia strains. The groEL, gltA, ompA, and htrA genes of the Candidatus R. jingxinensis strains have the highest identities of 99.05%, 100.00%, 100%, and 99.76% to other strains (Candidatus Rickettsia jingxinensis isolate Meixian-Hl-107, isolate tick-XA172, etc.). For the SFG Rickettsia strain tick61, although the 16S gene is 100% identical to Rickettsia sp. Hja 192 (LC379493.1) [18], its groEL, gltA, ompA, and htrA genes show 98.77%, 99.90%, 99.83%, 99.76% nucleotide similarity to R. peacockii str. Rustic (CP001227.1) from Dermacentor andersoni [19], Candidatus Rickettsia principis str. douglasi 061 (AY578115.1) from Ha. japonica [20], uncultured Rickettsia sp. clone Y27-1 (KT921894.1) from H. qinghaiensis [21], and uncultured Rickettsia sp. Hf_01 (LC656405) from Ha. flava in Japan, respectively (Table S2). As to the ompB gene, it has only as low as 97.07% (365/376 nt) nucleotide identity to Candidatus Rickettsia tasmanensis strain T152 (GQ223393) identified from Ixodes tasmani in Australia [22]. In the phylogenetic trees, its groEL, gltA, ompA, ompB, and htrA genes are apparently divergent from other SFG Rickettsia species (Figure 3). Notably, its ompA gene is in a basal location in the phylogenetic tree but far from SFG Rickettsia species. When only compared to validated Rickettsia species, its 16S, gltA, groEL, ompA, and ompB genes have the highest identities (99.58%, 98.81%, 98.77%, 81.87%, and 96.81%) to R. conorii strain Malish7 (NR074480) [23], R. raoultii strain Khabarovsk (CP010969) [24], R. peacockii str. Rustic (CP001227.1) [19], R. japonica strain YH_M (AP017602) [25], and R. conorii subsp. caspia A-167 (AF123708) [26], respectively. According to the criteria established by Fournier et al. [27], these results suggest that it represents a novel Rickettsia species. Based on the location where it was first characterized, we named it Candidatus R. hongyuanensis. For the Rickettsia sp. strain tick14, its groEL sequence has 99.54% (648/651 nt) nucleotide identity to the Rickettsia endosymbiont of Polydesmus complanatus strain Bel-53 (MH618395.1) identified in millipede [28] and 80.54% nucleotide identity to the Rickettsia endosymbiont of Bemisia tabaci (EU435143.1) identified in whitefly [29].
RpoB (408–526 bp) and groEL (545 bp) genes were obtained from the Coxiella strains. For the Coxiella strain closely related to Coxiella sp. isolate XinXian-HL9, its rpoB sequence has 86.96% identity (400/460, 87% coverage) to Coxiella sp. strain CoxAsp (MT000811.1) from Amblyomma sp. and 83.88% identity (385/459, 86% coverage) to the Coxiella endosymbiont of Dermacentor marginatus isolate DmarOD1 (MK248730.1). Meanwhile, its groEL gene has the highest (91.56%) similarity (499/545 nt) to Coxiella sp. isolate DR275 (MG860511.1) from Dermacentor reticulatus in Slovakia (Table S3). As shown in the phylogenetic trees, its genes form distinct clusters from any other Coxiella species (Figure 4). For the Coxiella strain tick8, closely related to Coxiella endosymbionts, only the rpoB gene was obtained. The rpoB gene shows 99.51% similarity (403/405 nt) to the Coxiella endosymbiont of Rhipicephalus annulatus isolate BF12 (KY678165.1) and 98.77% similarity (400/405 nt) to the Coxiella endosymbiont of Rhipicephalus microplus strain Porto Alegre (KY026067.1). The rpoB and groEL genes were not recovered from the Coxiella-like bacterium detected in the goat sample.
All of these sequences have been submitted to Genbank (Shown in Table S4).

3. Discussion

In this study, most pathogens were detected in H. qinghaiensis ticks. Meanwhile, some pathogens detected in ticks were also detected in goats, yaks, and keds, indicating the possible role of H. qinghaiensis in the maintenance and transmission of these pathogens in this area. Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis is an endemic tick species widely distributed in the western plateau of China [15]. As a three-host tick, it often infests domestic animals, including goats, cattle, yaks, horses, etc. Occasionally, it also bites humans [15]. In previous studies, it has been demonstrated that H. qinghaiensis transmits a lot of human and animal pathogens, such as Theileria sp., Babesia sp., Borrelia burgdorferi, and A. phagocytophilum [21]. The potential role of H. qinghaiensis ticks in the transmission of human and animal diseases in this area should be further considered.
Anaplasma bovis has been well recognized as a tick-borne pathogen infecting cattle, buffalos, yaks, goats, and rodents, as well as humans [4,30,31,32]. It is one of the etiologic agents of bovine anaplasmosis, characterized by fluctuating fever, depression, and death [33]. Occasionally, it also infects humans and causes fever, headache, myalgia, rash, eschar, etc. [4]. In this study, we observed remarkably high positivity rates of A. bovis in apparently healthy goats (58.93%) and yaks (45.71%), indicating that A. bovis is circulating in domestic animals in this region. Genetic and phylogenetic analyses both indicate that these strains are different from previously reported A. bovis strains, and they may represent more than one novel genotype. Phylogenetic analysis based on groEL and gltA genes indicated that they are divided into two clusters, and genetic recombination between the two clusters may exist, suggesting the long-history evolution of A. bovis in this area. The pathogenicity of these strains to humans is still to be determined. Ticks also tested positive for this A. bovis strain, with a positivity rate of 8.83%. As reported previously, the detection rate of Anaplasma in ticks was likely skewed due to Anaplasma infection in livestock [33]. Although the possibility cannot be ruled out that the A. bovis DNA may come from the blood meal of ticks, we suspect that H. qinghaiensis ticks might play a role in the transmission of A. bovis in domestic animals.
Three Rickettsia species, including Rickettsia sp. strain tick14, Candidatus R. jingxinensis, and a novel SFG Rickettsia species named Candidatus R. hongyuanensis, were identified in ticks. Candidatus R. jingxinensis, belonging to SFG Rickettsia, was first identified in Ha. longicornis from northeast China in 2016 [34]. In recent years, it has been detected in Rhipicephalus microplus, Ha. turturis, and Ixodes persulcatus from multiple locations in China, Korea, Thailand, and India, indicating that it is a widely distributed Rickettsia circulating in Asia [35,36,37,38,39]. Notably, a gltA sequence (KU853023) from a patient in China was submitted to GenBank (unpublished), which shows 99.91% nucleotide identity to Ca. R. jingxinensis, suggesting its potential human pathogenicity. Furthermore, a novel SFG Rickettsia named Candidatus R. hongyuanensis was identified in H. qinghaiensis ticks. Its 16S, gltA, groEL, ompA, and ompB genes have the highest identities of 99.58%, 98.81%, 98.77%, 81.87%, and 96.81% to validated species, supporting that it represents a novel Rickettsia species based on criteria established by Fournier et al. [27]. Genetic analyses indicate that it is closely related to human pathogenic R. raoultii and R. conorii. Due to the fact that H. qinghaiensis is a three-host tick, it can easily transmit pathogens between different hosts during its life cycle [15]. Therefore, the role of H. qinghaiensis in the transmission of SFG Rickettsia should be further considered, and investigations on the human pathogenicity of these Rickettsia species are still needed. Furthermore, Rickettsia sp. strain tick14, closely related to the Rickettsia endosymbiont of Polydesmus complanatus Bel-53 [28], was identified, and it is located in a basic position of the phylogenetic trees based on 16S and groEL sequences.
Similar to Rickettsiales bacteria, the genus Coxiella, belonging to Coxiellaceae, is a group of intracellular bacteria [40]. This genus includes two recognized species (C. burnetii and C. cheraxi), one Candidatus species (Candidatus Coxiella mudrowiae), and some unclassified Coxiella symbionts [41,42]. In this study, three Coxiella species were detected, with two of them infecting domestic animals. This may be one of the few recent studies in which Coxiella species were found to infect mammals. One Coxiella species (strain yak17, strain tick103, and strain tick166) was detected in ticks (3.34%), sheep keds (1.89%), and one yak blood sample (0.71%). Interestingly, sheep keds also tested positive for this Coxiella. There might be three possibilities: (1). Sheep keds are infected, and they act as the vector of this Coxiella. (2). The Coxiella DNA is from the blood meal of sheep keds. That is, goats may be infected by this Coxiella. (3). The Coxiella strains could be just Coxiella-like endosymbionts that co-exist with hosts/vectors. Each possibility is intriguing, and further studies are still needed. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that a Coxiella-like bacterium was identified in a goat blood sample. Its 16S gene shared the highest (96.77%) identity with the human and animal pathogen C. burnetii strain CB_25 (LC464975.1), strain CB_30 (LC464974.1), etc. (unpublished). However, sequences of other key genes are not available for this strain, possibly due to the low identity to known strains.
In summary, we identified seven bacterial species in arthropods and domestic animals in Ngawa. Although the human pathogenicity for most of these bacteria is still to be determined, more attention should be paid to the risk of human infection and the possible circulation of these pathogens in local people.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Sample Collection and Processing

Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture is located in the northwest of Sichuan Province and on the eastern edge of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China. From February to March 2021, 419 ticks and 106 sheep keds were respectively collected from yaks and goats in Sedi town (102.98°E, 30.01°N, with an altitude of 3528 m), Hongyuan County of Ngawa, Sichuan Province, China. The ticks and keds were stored at −40 °C before DNA extraction. From March to May, blood samples were collected from asymptomatic domestic animals, including yaks and goats, in Hongyuan County. Whole blood samples were stored in tubes containing EDTA as anticoagulant and then stored at −40 °C before DNA extraction.

4.2. DNA Extraction

The cryopreserved tick and sheep ked samples were washed three times with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and then were individually placed into 2 mL sterile tubes with 0.5 mL of PBS solution. After homogenization using Mixer Mill MM 400 (Retsch, Hann, Germany), the arthropod suspension was directly subjected to DNA extraction with a Mollusc DNA Extraction Kit (Omega Bio-Tek, Norcross, GA, USA). The kit was operated according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and the genomic DNA was extracted and eluted with 60 μL of Elution Buffer twice.
According to the protocol of Blood & Tissue DNA Kit (Omega, Norcross, GA, USA), DNA was extracted from 200 μL of the animal blood samples. After extraction, the DNA samples were diluted into 60 μL of Elution Buffer repeatedly.

4.3. Species Identification of Ticks and Keds

Ticks and keds were morphologically identified by an arthropod taxonomist using microscopy and then stored at −40 °C until DNA isolation. The tick species was morphologically determined by observing the basis scapituli and palp, while the ked species was determined by checking the mouthparts, bristles on the body surface, and legs tipped with pointed claws [43]. Tick and ked species were further confirmed by PCR amplification and analysis of the COI gene (cytochrome C oxidase I) (primers shown in Table S5). PCR amplification was performed using a Sensoquest PCR System LabCycler (Göttingen, Germany). The cycling conditions were: 94 °C for 3 min, 35 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 55 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 1 min, and a final extension of 72 °C for 5 min [44]. After electrophoresis, the amplicons were subjected to sequencing and analyzed by BLASTN alignment.

4.4. PCR Detection and Amplification of Key Genes

To determine the presence and prevalence of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Coxiella spp., semi-nested or nested PCR targeting a conserved domain of 16S rDNA gene was performed on all DNA samples. The primers are shown in Table S5 and previous reports [43,45]. PCR amplification was performed using a Sensoquest PCR System LabCycler (Germany). For further analysis of the molecular characteristics and phylogenetic positions of these bacterial strains, the sequences of two other genes (the gltA gene encoding citrate synthase and the groEL gene encoding the heat shock protein) were obtained for Rickettsia (gltA: 1006 bp; groEL: 656–1053 bp) and Anaplasma (gltA: 826 bp; groEL: 769 bp) positive samples (primers and details shown in Table S5). Additionally, a longer 16S fragment (1201 bp), ompA (705 bp), ompB (376 bp), and htrA (411 bp) genes were recovered from Rickettsia strains. The primers used were previously described [43,46] (Table S5). For Coxiella strains, the sequences of groEL and rpoB genes were obtained using the primers shown in Table S5 [45]. The details of amplification are provided in Table S5. After electrophoresis in 1.0% agarose gel, the PCR amplicons were subjected to sequencing by Sangon Biotech Company (Shanghai, China), and the sequencing results were analyzed by BLASTN alignment.

4.5. Genetic and Phylogenetic Analyses

Protein-coding sequences from Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Coxiella spp. obtained in this study, as well as the reference sequences retrieved from GenBank, were aligned using ClustalW (“protein-coding genes” strategy) in the MEGA software, version 7.0 [47]. Nucleotide sequence identities were calculated by MegAlign program in the DNASTAR Lasergene package (DNASTAR, Inc., Madison, WI, USA). Phylogenetic trees of the 16S and other key genes based on the maximum likelihood method were reconstructed by PhyML v3.2 [48]. The substitution model test was performed to determine the best-fit phylogenetic model. The confidence values for individual branches of the tree were determined by bootstrap analysis with 100 repetitions.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://0-www-mdpi-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/article/10.3390/pathogens11050606/s1, Table S1. Nucleotide identity of 16S, gltA, and groEL genes of Anaplasma bovis strains to reported strains in the Genbank database. Table S2. Nucleotide identity of 16S, gltA, groEL, ompA, ompB, and htrA genes of Rickettsia strains to reported strains in the Genbank database. Table S3. Nucleotide identity of 16S, groEL, and rpoB genes of Coxiella strains to reported strains in the Genbank database. Table S4. Genbank numbers of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Coxiella spp. sequences obtained in this study. Table S5. The primers used for amplification of 16S, gltA, groEL, htrA, ompA, ompB, and rpoB genes from Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Coxiella spp. by nested PCR or semi-nested PCR. Supporting Data. Nucleotide sequences of Candidatus Rickettsia hongyuanensis.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.L., H.Z. and H.J.; methodology, M.L.; validation, M.L. and W.W.; formal analysis, W.W. and X.Q.; resources, J.T. and H.J.; data curation, K.L.; writing—review and editing, K.L., H.Z. and H.J.; supervision, K.L.; project administration, K.L.; funding acquisition, M.L., J.T., H.Z., H.J., W.W., X.Q. and K.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control (Nos. 2021SKLID510 and 2021SKLID507), Young Talent Program of Higher School in Hebei Province (No. BJ2020024), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Nos. 2020YFA0907101 and 2021YFC2301202), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 82102390), the National Science and Technology Major Project of China (2018ZX10101002-002 and 2018ZX10732401-001), and Medical Youth Top Talent Project of Hubei.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This work was approved by the ethics committee of the National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (approval numbers: SYXK2021-011 and SYXK2017-0021), and Chengde Medical University (approval number: 2020004).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All sequence files are available from the NCBI database (shown in Table S4).

Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank Wenping Guo, Duoji, and Xiaojing Jin for their warmhearted help.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. A map showing the location of Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China.
Figure 1. A map showing the location of Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China.
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Figure 2. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (881 bp), gltA (826 bp), and groEL (769 bp) genes of Anaplasma bovis strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): gltA, (C): groEL.
Figure 2. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (881 bp), gltA (826 bp), and groEL (769 bp) genes of Anaplasma bovis strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): gltA, (C): groEL.
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Figure 3. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (1201 bp), gltA (1006 bp), groEL (656–1053 bp), ompA (687–699 bp), ompB (376 bp), and htrA (411 bp) genes of Rickettsia strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): gltA, (C: groEL, (D): ompA, (E): ompB, (F): htrA.
Figure 3. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (1201 bp), gltA (1006 bp), groEL (656–1053 bp), ompA (687–699 bp), ompB (376 bp), and htrA (411 bp) genes of Rickettsia strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): gltA, (C: groEL, (D): ompA, (E): ompB, (F): htrA.
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Figure 4. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (1180–1181 bp), groEL (545 bp), and rpoB (408–526 bp) genes of Coxiella strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): groEL, (C): rpoB.
Figure 4. Phylogenetic trees constructed by the PhyML 3.0 software based on the nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (1180–1181 bp), groEL (545 bp), and rpoB (408–526 bp) genes of Coxiella strains. (A): 16S rRNA, (B): groEL, (C): rpoB.
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Table
Table 1. The positivity rates of Anaplasma, Rickettsia, and Coxiella pathogens in different hosts (ticks, keds, yaks, and goats).
Table 1. The positivity rates of Anaplasma, Rickettsia, and Coxiella pathogens in different hosts (ticks, keds, yaks, and goats).
Bacterial SpeciesHaemaphysalis qinghaiensisMelophagus ovinusBos mutusCapra hircus
Anaplasma bovis8.83% (37/419)0.00% (0/106)45.71% (64/140)58.93% (33/56)
Candidatus Rickettsia jingxinensis0.48% (2/419)0.00% (0/106)0.00% (0/140)0.00% (0/56)
Candidatus Rickettsia hongyuanensis0.24% (1/419)0.00% (0/106)0.00% (0/140)0.00% (0/56)
Rickettsia sp. tick140.24% (1/419)0.00% (0/106)0.00% (0/140)0.00% (0/56)
Coxiella spp.3.34% (14/419)1.89% (2/106)0.71% (1/140)0.00% (0/56)
Coxiella sp. tick80.24% (1/419)0.00% (0/106)0.00% (0/140)0.00% (0/56)
Coxiella-like bacterium0.00% (0/419)0.00% (0/106)0.00% (0/140)1.79% (1/56)
Total13.37% (56/419)1.89% (2/106)46.43% (65/140)60.71% (34/56)
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Lu, M.; Tian, J.; Zhao, H.; Jiang, H.; Qin, X.; Wang, W.; Li, K. Molecular Survey of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Ticks, Sheep Keds, and Domestic Animals from Ngawa, Southwest China. Pathogens 2022, 11, 606. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11050606

AMA Style

Lu M, Tian J, Zhao H, Jiang H, Qin X, Wang W, Li K. Molecular Survey of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Ticks, Sheep Keds, and Domestic Animals from Ngawa, Southwest China. Pathogens. 2022; 11(5):606. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11050606

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Lu, Miao, Junhua Tian, Hongqing Zhao, Hai Jiang, Xincheng Qin, Wen Wang, and Kun Li. 2022. "Molecular Survey of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Ticks, Sheep Keds, and Domestic Animals from Ngawa, Southwest China" Pathogens 11, no. 5: 606. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/pathogens11050606

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