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Communication

Sources of Resistance to Powdery Mildew in Barley Landraces from Turkey

Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute (IHAR-PIB), Radzikow, 05-870 Blonie, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Submission received: 13 September 2021 / Revised: 12 October 2021 / Accepted: 14 October 2021 / Published: 17 October 2021
(This article belongs to the Section Genotype Evaluation and Breeding)

Abstract

:
Powdery mildew on barley, caused by the pathogen Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei, occurs worldwide and can result in severe yield loss. Germplasm of barley, including landraces, commercial cultivars, wild relatives and breeding lines are stored in more than 200 institutions. There is a need for characterization of this germplasm in terms of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. This is necessary in order to use specific accessions in breeding programs. In the present study, 129 barley landraces originated from Turkey and provided by the ICARDA genebank were tested for resistance to powdery mildew. Seedling resistance tests after inoculation with 19 differentiated isolates of B. graminis f. sp. hordei were used to postulate the presence of resistance genes. From the 129 landraces studied, plants of 19 (14.7%) of them showed resistance to infection with powdery mildew. Based on preliminary tests from these 19 landraces, 25 resistant single plant lines were selected for testing with differential powdery mildew isolates. Seven lines were resistant to all 19 isolates used. However, only one line (5583-1-4) showed resistance scores of zero against all isolates used. It is likely that this line possesses unknown, but highly effective genes for resistance. In five resistant lines it was not possible to postulate the presence of specific resistance genes. In 19 lines the presence of the genes Mlp, Mlk, Mlh, Mlg, Ml(CP), Mlat, Mla3, Mla6, Mla7 and Mla22 were postulated. These new sources of highly effective powdery mildew resistance in barley landraces from Turkey could be successfully used in breeding programs.

1. Introduction

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an economically important cereal crop which is known to be drought, cold, and salt tolerant and well-adapted to low-input environmental conditions [1,2]. It is cultivated at high altitudes and commonly under rain-fed conditions. It is often grown in marginal agricultural areas with low annual precipitation, often less than 220 mm [3]. Barley ranks as the fourth crop in the world, after wheat, maize and rice, in terms of the area of cultivation. Almost half of the world’s barley area is in Europe, where barley is second crop after wheat in cultivated area [4].
Germplasm of barley, including landraces, commercial cultivars, wild relatives and breeding lines is very diverse and is stored in more than 200 institutions [5,6]. Barley landraces are an important source of genetic variation and resistance to biotic stresses including powdery mildew [7,8,9]. Turkey is characterized by the presence of diverse agroecological zones and a long history of agriculture. It is known to be a rich source of barley landraces. They are still planted in this country, and they are characterized by a high level of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. There is a need for characterization of this germplasm in terms of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. This knowledge is necessary in order to use specific accessions in breeding programs [10,11,12].
Barley is often infected by barley powdery mildew fungus (Blumeria graminis DC. Golovin ex Speer f. sp. hordei). Loss of yield caused by this disease can reach up to 30%, with averages of 5–10% [13,14,15,16]. Powdery mildew on barley is considered one of the most well-characterized host–pathogen genetic interaction systems. Barley cultivars with effective genes for resistance to powdery mildew have been an efficient means for controlling this disease [17,18,19,20,21]. Barley breeders have used major resistance genes: Mla6, Mla7, Mla9, Mla12 and Mla13, Mlk, Mlg, MlLa, Mlh and Mlra, which originated from landraces as well as from the subspecies H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum. Durable mlo-resistance (gene mlo) has been identified in landraces. Since 1984, it has been deployed in many barley cultivars throughout Europe [20,22,23,24].
Effective controlling of barley powdery mildew is possible by growing genetically resistant barley cultivars. This method of crop protection is relatively inexpensive and it is environmentally friendly. These cultivars started being used from the beginning of the application of modern, intensive methods in barley production because these production methods created favorable conditions for development of this disease [25,26,27,28,29,30]. Currently, powdery mildew of barley is one of the most common and most widespread disease of barley in Europe and another barley regions of the world, causing significant yield losses [20,21,31].
When a cultivar containing one dominant resistance gene is grown on a large acreage, new virulent B. graminis races may occur within 4–5 years. Exceptions are recessive genes for resistance such as mlf and mlo. However, many factors, e.g., temperature, water stress or light intensity, may affect the use of these genes in breeding programmes [20,22,28]. At least 38 different genes/alleles have been used in varieties grown in Europe [32]. Nevertheless, barley breeders, geneticists and plant pathologists are constantly looking for new, efficient sources of powdery mildew resistance, in order to combine them with those already used in modern cultivars, and to increase their resistance durability [31,33,34].
Most of the original sources of powdery mildew resistance genes came from domesticated cultivars in Europe [25,26,35]. These sources of resistance were easy to be used in breeding but the number of resistance genes was limited. Breeders and geneticists have been looking for new sources of resistance in non-European germplasm. Most of these studies were conducted using collections of landraces and differential sets of powdery mildew isolates [36,37]. Previous studies showed that barley landraces from Turkey are rich sources of genetic diversity for plant breeding, including resistance to pathogens [10,11,12,38,39].
Identification of powdery mildew resistance genes based on tests performed on seedlings using differential sets of pathogens is effective and sufficient for breeders’ and pathologists’ needs [25,30,40,41]. This study aimed at detecting sources of powdery mildew resistance in barley landraces from Turkey.

2. Materials and Method

2.1. Plant Material

Seed samples of 129 H. vulgare L. landraces from Turkey were provided by Dr. J. Valkoun, J. Konopka and Prof. S. Ceccarelli (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas—ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria) (Table 1). For 53 landraces, details about the places of collection were known. These landraces originated from 26 provinces: 11 landraces were from Ismir province, 4—Kars, 3—Eskisehir, 3—Agri, 3—Erzincan, 3—Sivas, 3—Mugla, 3—Bilecik, 3—Kayseri, 2—Kutahya and 1 landrace originated from each of the following provinces—Bayburt, Denizli, Sanli Urfa, Manisa, Van, Mus, Hakkari, Tokat, Icel, Antakya, Gaziantep, Isparta, Adana, Afyon, Usak, and Bursa. They were collected at altitudes from 15 m above sea level in Izmir province, to 1900 m above sea level in Kars province, and 2250 m above sea level in Bayburt province.

2.2. Pathogen

Nineteen differential Bgh (B. graminis f. sp. hordei Em Marschal) isolates with virulence genes corresponding to known resistance genes were used (Table 2). Isolates originated from the collections in Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark; Danish Institute for Plant and Soil Science, Lyngby, Denmark; Edigenossische Technische Hochschule—ETH, Zurich, Switzerland provided kindly by Dr. H. J. Schaerer (ETH, Zurich, Switzerland) and the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute (PBAI-NRI) IHAR, Radzikow, Poland. A set of isolines of barley cultivar Pallas with different resistance genes was used [42], provided by Dr. L. Munk (Royal Agricultural and Veterinary University, Copenhagen, Denmark) and on 8 additional cultivars.
Isolate Bgh 33 was the most avirulent isolate. It was avirulent to resistance genes, or their combinations, such as: Mla1, Mla3, Mla6 + Mla14, Mla7 + Mlk +?, Mla7 +?, Mla7 + MlLG2, Mla9 + Mlk, Mla9, Mla12, Mla13 + MlRu3, Mla22, Mla23, MlRu2, Mlk, Mlp, Mlat and to resistance genes present in additional cultivars included in a differential set: Benedicte (Mla9,Ml(IM9), Lenka (Mla13,Ml(Ab), Steffi (Ml(St1), Ml(St2), and Kredit Ml(Kr). Isolates Bgh 1, Bgh 29, and Bgh 51 were the most virulent group. Isolate Bgh 51 was virulent to resistance genes or their combinations present in 18 Pallas isolines, Bgh 29 was virulent to resistance genes or their combinations present in 17 Pallas isolines and Bgh 1 virulent to resistance genes or their combinations present in 16 Pallas isolines. They were purified by single pustule isolation and were maintained and propagated on young seedlings of the powdery mildew-susceptible cultivar Manchuria (CI 2330). Virulence checks were conducted to assure the purity of isolates throughout the experiment.
A five-point (0 to 4) reaction type (RT) scale was used, as follows: 0, no visible symptoms; 1, minute necrotic flecks, no mycelial growth and no sporulation; 2, frequent chlorosis, reduced mycelial growth and no or very scarce sporulation; 3, moderate mycelial growth, moderate sporulation, and occasional chlorosis; 4, profuse sporulation of well-developed colonies, 0(4) sparse small colonies originating from the stomatal subsidiary cells [26,43].

2.3. Landraces and Single Plant-Lines Resistance Tests

First, samples of 30 plants from each of the landraces were tested with the Bgh 33 isolate (the most avirulent one) under controlled chamber conditions with a 16/8 h day/night photoperiod and a 22/16 °C temperature regime.
Seedlings with a fully expanded first leaf were inoculated with Bgh isolate by shaking conidia from the susceptible cv. Manchuria. After 8–10 days, infection types were scored. Plants with disease scores of 0 to 1 were classified as highly resistant (R), plants that scored 2 as a moderately resistant (M) and rating of 3 or 4 as susceptible and very susceptible (S). Plants with the score 0(4) possess a resistance gene in locus Mlo. The cultivar Manchurian CI 3230 was used as a susceptible control.
Based on the results of this preliminary experiment, 25 resistant single plant lines from 19 landraces were selected. A highly resistant reaction type was observed on 13 lines, and a moderately resistant reaction type was observed on 11 lines. In 5 landraces, segregation of RT was observed (Table 3). Next, they were grown in greenhouse conditions to obtain seeds for future evaluations using a set of 19 Bgh differential isolates.
Postulation of resistant genes in tested lines was based on a comparison of reaction spectra observed on tested plants and the barley differential set infected with differential Bgh isolates (Table 1). This was performed on the basis of the gene-for-gene hypothesis [44].

3. Results

Plants of 19 (14.7%) of the tested landraces were resistant to infection with Bgh33 isolate in preliminary testing. In five landraces, segregation of RT was observed. Based on preliminary tests from these 19 landraces, 25 resistant, single plant lines were selected for testing with differential isolates. From these lines, seven were resistant to all 19 isolates used. However, only one line (5583-1-4) showed resistance scores of zero against all isolates used (Table 3). In five lines it was not possible to postulate the presence of specific resistance genes. In 19 lines, the presence of the genes Mlp, Mlk, Mlh, Mlg, Ml(CP), Mlat, Mla3, Mla6, Mla7, Mla22 and unknown genes (genes not present in differential set) were postulated.

4. Discussion

Barley landraces from Turkey are a rich source of genetic diversity for plant breeding, including resistance to powdery mildew [10,11,12,38,39]. This was confirmed in the presented study. Single plant lines selected from 19 (14.7%) of the tested landraces were resistant to infection with powdery mildew.
Resistant lines selected from landraces are a very valuable material for resistance breeding. This kind of germplasm is the simplest source of resistance to use directly in breeding programs. Because of their adaptability to a wide range of conditions, barley landraces are recognized as an important genetic resource for tolerance and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. They carry unique traits and are considered a rich resource for resistance breeding and for the expansion of the gene pool [45,46].
Turkey is a rich source of barley genetic diversity because of its geographic location. The south-eastern region of Turkey is at the top of the Fertile Crescent of the Near East, within the centre of origin of cultivated barley [39]. Barley is one of the oldest cultivated plants grown in Anatolia, and it is the second most important cereal crop following wheat. In addition, in Turkey, the ancestor of cultivated barley, Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch, grows naturally, and powdery mildew epidemics occur in the western and southern parts of the country [12]. All these factors lead to conclusion that coevolution of barley powdery mildew was occurring in Turkey for very long time, and that barley landraces from Turkey may be a rich source of resistance to powdery mildew. This was confirmed in the presented study, in which many resistance genes were identified in lines selected from Turkish landraces.
The genetic diversity of barley landraces offers many traits for barley breeding, especially concerning resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses [3,33,47,48,49,50]. The genetic heterogeneity within the barley landraces is due to a low level of outcrossing occurring in barley, and farmers’ management of seed [40,51,52,53]. This genetic heterogeneity was also observed in the presented study, in which five landraces showed segregation of RT.
Many barley landraces collected in Tunisia [27], Morocco [36,54,55,56,57,58,59], Australia [60], China [61], Greece [62], Jordan [63,64], Egypt [54], Latvia [65], Libya [66], Yemen [67] and Spain [68,69,70,71,72] have been tested for resistance to powdery mildew, and numerous known and unknown specific resistances have been identified. In addition, collections of landraces from many countries have been studied [35,40,73,74,75,76]. Results show that the presence of known and unknown powdery mildew resistance genes have been obtained for barley landraces from Turkey [10,38,39]. The present study confirmed that barley landraces from Turkey have numerous known and unknown specific resistances to powdery mildew. In 24 resistant single-plant lines studied, the presence unknown resistance genes and the genes Mlp, Mlk, Mlh, Mlg, Ml(CP), Mlat, Mla3, Mla6, Mla7 and Mla22 were postulated.
Seedling resistance tests were used in order to describe infection types expressed by barley lines after inoculation with differentiated isolates of B. graminis f. sp. hordei. This kind of testing is sufficient for disease-resistance screening. It is used commonly in breeding programmes to postulate the presence of specific resistance genes in modern cultivars and to screen germplasm for new sources of effective resistance [36,40,75,76]. However, these kinds of tests are not very useful for identifying and describing partial resistance. For a description of partial resistance there is a need to conduct measurements of resistance characteristics, in addition to the infection type. Furthermore, partial resistance is generally better expressed at the adult plant stage [26,34,77].
Newly identified sources of powdery mildew resistance in 25 single plant lines (originated from 19 landraces) are valuable for barley breeding for resistance. In five lines it was not possible to postulate the presence of specific resistance genes. In 19 lines the presence of the genes Mlp, Mlk, Mlh, Mlg, Ml(CP), Mlat, Mla3, Mla6, Mla7 and Mla22 and unknown genes (not present in differential set) were postulated. Interestingly for barley resistance breeding, seven lines selected from four landraces were resistant to all 19 isolates used in this study. However, the most interesting point from a breeders’ point of view was line 5583-1-4, which showed resistance scores of zero for all isolates used. Most probably this line possesses unknown, yet very effective genes for resistance. Future work will include the genetic study of resistance identified in seven single-plant lines by conducting appropriate crosses and the use of molecular markers [58,59,78,79]. Authors intend to introduce these alleles into elite cultivars of barley to create initial materials for European breeding programmes. This is a necessary step between barley genebank collections and the practical use of barley genetic resources in breeding programmes. The new sources of highly effective powdery mildew resistance described in this study could be successfully used in barley breeding programs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.H.C.; methodology, J.H.C.; formal analysis, J.H.C. and E.C.; investigation, J.H.C.; resources, J.H.C.; writing—original draft preparation, project administration, J.H.C.; funding acquisition, J.H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The results presented are based on evaluation carried out in the frame of the ECPGR-funded complementary module of the European Union project GENRES PL98-104 on barley genetic resources evaluation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available in tables. Contact person is Jerzy H. Czembor, IHAR-PIB Radzików.

Acknowledgments

The results presented are based on evaluation carried out in the frame of the ECP/GR-funded complementary module of the European Union project GENRES PL98-104 on barley genetic resources evaluation. Authors thank J. Valkoun, J. Konopka and S. Ceccarelli (ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria) for providing seed samples of barley landrace from Turkey, H. J. Schaerer (ETH, Zurich, Switzerland) for the powdery mildew isolates, L. Munk (Royal Agricultural and Veterinary University, Copenhagen, Denmark) for the near-isogenic lines of ‘Pallas’. Authors thank H. Knupffer, D. Enneking (IPK-Genebank, Gatersleben, Germany), L. Maggioni (ECP/GR, Rome, Italy) and W. Podyma (IHAR—Genebank, Radzikow, Poland) for providing the opportunity to conduct the research presented.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. Authors declare any personal circumstances or interest that may be perceived as inappropriately influencing the representation or interpretation of reported research results. Any role of the funders in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results must be declared in this section.

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Table 1. Collected data of 129 landraces from Turkey.
Table 1. Collected data of 129 landraces from Turkey.
No.ICARDA IGIHAR NoLongitude (E)Latitude (N)Altitude (ppm)ProvinceNo.ICARDA IGIHAR NoLongitudeLatitudeAltitudeProvince
118,7815177----66115,9385468E28 22N37 13-Mugla
218,848517831 32-EN39 27-Eskisehir67115,9395469----
318,8495179E31 32-EN39 27-Eskisehir68115,9405470----
418,8515180E27 11N39 07-Izmir69115,9465471E28 53N40 35-Bursa
519,0565181----70115,9475472----
619,0585182----71115,9485473----
719,0625183----72115,9495474----
819,0685184E27 11N39 07-Izmir73115,9585475----
919,0775185----7419,7115511---Usak
1018,5415186E28 38N38 33-Manisa7519,7425512---Afyon
1119,5455187----7619,9095513---Kutahya
1219,5465188----7719,9205514---Kutahya
1319,5475189----7819,9295515---Bilecik
1419,5505190----7919,9925516---Bilecik
1519,5625191----8026,3105523---Adana
1619,5655192----8126,7585524----
1719,5665193----8227,1895525E35 29N38 44-Kayseri
1819,5685194----8327,2465526E30 32 N37 46-Isparta
1919,5695195----8427,2515527E37 21N37 08-Gaziantep
2019,5765196E27 11N39 07-Izmir8528,5375532E36 34N36 16-Antakya
2137,2245340----8628,5435533E33 39N36 21-Icel
2237,2255341----8728,6755534E35 37N40 17-Tokat
2337,2305342----8828,6765535E43 06N40 37-Kars
2437,2345343----8928,7045536E35 22N38 11-Kayseri
2537,2355344----9028,7065537E43 04N39 44-Agri
2637,2375345----9128,7285538E38 29N39 16-Erzincan
2737,2395346----9228,7345539E36 36N39 52-Sivas
2837,2405347----9328,8095540E44 02N39 34-Agri
2937,2415348----9428,8115541--702Hakkari
3037,2425349----9528,8175542---Mus
3137,2435350----9628,8595543E29 59N40 10 -Bilecik
3237,2445351----9728,8605544---Van
3337,2465352----9832,6795546E43 02N41 011900Kars
3437,2495353----9932,6835547E36 55N39 481310Sivas
3537,2505354----10032,6845548E27 03N38 3415Izmir
3637,2515355----10135,5285553E43 56N39 331820Agri
3737,2525356----10235,5315554E43 02N41 011900Kars
3837,2555357----10335,5325555E40 00N40 012250Bayburt
3937,2575358----10435,5335556E40 23N39 471420Erzincan
4037,2585359----10535,5345557E40 23N39 471420Erzincan
4137,2605360----10635,5355558E36 55N39 481310Sivas
4237,2625361----10735,5365559E27 03N38 3415Izmir
4337,2665362----10835,8675563E28 22N37 13-Mugla
4437,2685363----10935,8685564E27 10N38 25200Izmir
4537,2695364----11037,2265569----
4637,2715365----11137,2275570----
4737,2735366----11237,2285571----
4837,2755367----11337,2295572---
4937,2855368----11437,2235573----
50112,9195430E27 32N38 01-Izmir11537,2365574----
51112,9425431----11637,2385575---
52112,9955432----11737,2455576----
53113,0065433----11837,2485577- ---
54113,0085434----11937,2535578----
55113,0095435E27 32N38 01-Izmir12037,2565579----
56113,0105436E27 32N38 01-Izmir12137,2595580----
57113,0115437E31 32N39 27-Eskisehir12237,2615581----
58113,0195438----12337,2645582----
59113,0205439----12437,2675583----
60113,0225440E37 56N37 04-Sanli Urfa12537,2705584----
61113,0245441----12637,2745585----
62113,0285442----12737,2765586----
63113,0295443E27 10N38 26 Izmir12837,2895587E43 05N40 511900Kars
64113,0535444E28 50 N37 27 Denizli 12937,2955588E40 00N40 012250Bayburt
65115,9375467E27 10N38 26-Izmir
Table 2. B. graminis f. sp. hordei isolates used for artificial inoculation and their virulence spectra against resistance genes on differential set of Pallas near-isogenic lines and 8 cultivars.
Table 2. B. graminis f. sp. hordei isolates used for artificial inoculation and their virulence spectra against resistance genes on differential set of Pallas near-isogenic lines and 8 cultivars.
No.Pallas Isolines and CultivarsVirulenceBgh Isolates
Bgh 1Bgh 2Bgh 4Bgh 8Bgh 9Bgh 11Bgh 13Bgh 14Bgh 24Bgh 28Bgh 29Bgh 31Bgh 33Bgh 36Bgh 40Bgh 48Bgh 51Bgh 57Bgh 63
1P1Mla10044000000400400400
2P2Mla31000000000400440000
3P3Mla6, Mla140000040404000444444
4P4AMla7, Mlk, +?2222222224240222442
5P4BMla7, +?4410224402441441444
6P6Mla7, MlLG24400212402240420444
7P7Mla9, Mlk4000004000400000040
8P8AMla9, Mlk4000004000400000040
9P8BMla94000004040400000040
10P9Mla10, MlDu24401404020444400444
11P10Mla120000400400440440404
12P11Mla13, MlRu34000000440040000404
13P12Mla224444040444440044400
14P13Mla231112121111211111111
15P14Mlra4404444044444444444
16P15Ml(Ru2)4443424420442444444
17P17Mlk4422224220442422444
18P18Mlnn4444244422444444422
19P19Mlp2222222222222222222
20P20Mlat2242224222222242422
21P22mlo50(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)30(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)0(4)
22P23Ml(La)4444244444444444444
23P24Mlh4404444444444044444
24P21Mlg, Ml(CP)4400040404444440404
25PallasMla84444444444444444444
26BenedicteMla9,Ml(IM9)0000000400440440404
27BorwinaMl(Bw)4304044422344434422
28GunnarMla3, Ml(Tu2)0000000000000000000
29JarekMl(Kr), +?4444244444444424424
30KreditMl(Kr)4202002444240422444
31LenkaMla13,Ml(Ab)4000000400040000404
32SteffiMl(St1), Ml(St2)2200000400230420204
33TrumphMla7, Ml(Ab)4444444444444444444
34Manchuria-4444444444444444444
A five-point (0 to 4) reaction type (RT) scale was as follows: 0, no visible symptoms; 1, minute necrotic flecks, no mycelial growth and no sporulation; 2, frequent chlorosis, reduced mycelial growth and no or very scarce sporulation; 3, moderate mycelial growth, moderate sporulation, and occasional chlorosis; 4, profuse sporulation of well-developed colonies, 0(4) sparse small colonies originating from the stomatal subsidiary cells.
Table 3. Resistance of barley (H. vulgare L.) lines selected from landraces originating from Turkey to B. graminis f. sp. hordei isolates after inoculation at the seedling stage.
Table 3. Resistance of barley (H. vulgare L.) lines selected from landraces originating from Turkey to B. graminis f. sp. hordei isolates after inoculation at the seedling stage.
No.LandraceLineIsolatePostulated Resistance Genes
ICARDA IGIHAR No.IHAR No.Bgh 1Bgh 2Bgh 4Bgh 8Bgh 9Bgh 11Bgh 13Bgh 14Bgh 24Bgh 28Bgh 29Bgh 31Bgh 33Bgh 36Bgh 40Bgh 48Bgh 51Bgh 57Bgh 63
18,78151775177 1 12222222222222222222Mlp
218,78151775177 1 42222222222220222222Mla7, Mlk, +?
318,84951795179 1 10002010002410040000Mla3, Mlh
419,07751855185 1 10202040444202244444Mla6, +?
519,07751855185 4 32200020202202220402[Mla7, Mlk+?], [Mlg, Ml(CP)]
619,54151865186 2 12200020202202220422[Mla7, Mlk+?], [Mlg, Ml(CP)]
719,54751895189 2 12200040424400442424?
819,54751895189 3 32200040424002242424?
919,55051905190 3 10202040444002244444Mla6, +?
1025,97952045204 3 22222222222222222222Mlp
1137,23053425342 1 10202000001400040010Mla3, Mlh
1237,23453435343 1 10202000000400040020Mla3, Mlh
1337,23553445344 1 12202244444222444444?
14113,01154375437 1 10002040444000444444Mla6, +?
15113,02054395439 1 12222222222222222222Mlp
16113,02054395439 5 12222222222200222222Mla7, Mlk, +?
17113,02854425442 2 22212222222220222222Mla7, Mlk, +?
18113,02854425442 1 3nd *ndnd222nd22222222nd222Mlp
19115,94054705470 3 10002040444000244444Mla6, +?
20115,94754725472 1 40002040444000444424Mla6, +?
21115,94854735473 1 54044244444442444444?
22115,95854755475 1 122422242222222nd2422Mlat
2328,86055445544 1 14444044444440044400Mla22
2437,26755835583 1 40000000000000000000
2537,28955875587 2 14444044444440044400Mla22
* nd—no data. A five-point (0 to 4) reaction type (RT) scale was used as follows: 0, no visible symptoms; 1, minute necrotic flecks, no mycelial growth and no sporulation; 2, frequent chlorosis, reduced mycelial growth and no or very scarce sporulation; 3, moderate mycelial growth, moderate sporulation, and occasional chlorosis; 4, profuse sporulation of well-developed colonies, 0(4) sparse small colonies originating from the stomatal subsidiary cells.
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Czembor, J.H.; Czembor, E. Sources of Resistance to Powdery Mildew in Barley Landraces from Turkey. Agriculture 2021, 11, 1017. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11101017

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Czembor JH, Czembor E. Sources of Resistance to Powdery Mildew in Barley Landraces from Turkey. Agriculture. 2021; 11(10):1017. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11101017

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Czembor, Jerzy H., and Elżbieta Czembor. 2021. "Sources of Resistance to Powdery Mildew in Barley Landraces from Turkey" Agriculture 11, no. 10: 1017. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11101017

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