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Gels, Volume 6, Issue 3 (September 2020) – 14 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Polyelectrolyte hydrogels have a unique ability to store large amounts of molecules of opposite charge to the network in a protective environment. This makes them useful in drug delivery and for encapsulation purposes. The storage and release of amphiphilic molecules and proteins are often associated with phase transformations of the gel networks involving large volume changes, so-called volume phase transitions (VPT). In this paper, we review the current understanding of driving forces behind VPT in charged polymer networks induced by macroions, the conditions under which swollen and collapsed phases coexist in the same network, and the consequences of VPT for the mechanisms and kinetics of loading and release of proteins, peptides, and self-assembling amphiphilic molecules. View this paper.
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12 pages, 3906 KiB  
Article
Starch-Based Aerogels Obtained via Solvent-Induced Gelation
by Mirelle Dogenski, Pavel Gurikov, Victor Baudron, J. Vladimir de Oliveira, Irina Smirnova and Sandra R. S. Ferreira
Gels 2020, 6(3), 32; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030032 - 19 Sep 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4615
Abstract
In this work, the ability of several solvents to induce gel formation from amylomaize starch solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was investigated. The formed gels were subjected to solvent exchange using ethanol and dried with supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO2) to obtain [...] Read more.
In this work, the ability of several solvents to induce gel formation from amylomaize starch solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was investigated. The formed gels were subjected to solvent exchange using ethanol and dried with supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-CO2) to obtain the aerogels. The influence of starch concentration (3–15 wt%) and solvent content (20–80 wt%) on gel formation was also studied. It was demonstrated that the gelation of starch in binary mixtures of solvents can be rationalized by Hansen Solubility Parameters (HSP) revealing a crucial hole of hydrogen bonding for the gel’s strength, which is in agreement with rheological measurements. Only the addition of water or propylene glycol to starch/DMSO solutions resulted in strong gels at a minimum starch and solvent content of 7.5 wt% and 50 wt%, respectively. The resulting aerogels showed comparably high specific surface areas (78–144 m2 g−1) and low envelope densities (0.097–0.203 g cm−3). The results of this work indicate that the HSP parameters could be used as a tool to guide the rational selection of water-free gelation in starch/DMSO systems. In addition, it opens up an attractive opportunity to perform starch gelation in those solvents that are miscible with sc-CO2, avoiding the time-consuming step of solvent exchange. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2020)
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20 pages, 3169 KiB  
Article
Donnan Contribution and Specific Ion Effects in Swelling of Cationic Hydrogels are Additive: Combined High-Resolution Experiments and Finite Element Modeling
by Nataša Žuržul, Arne Ilseng, Victorien E. Prot, Hrafn M. Sveinsson, Bjørn H. Skallerud and Bjørn T. Stokke
Gels 2020, 6(3), 31; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030031 - 17 Sep 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2778
Abstract
Finite element modeling applied to analyze experimentally determined hydrogel swelling data provides quantitative description of the hydrogel in the aqueous solutions with well-defined ionic content and environmental parameters. In the present study, we expand this strategy to analysis of swelling of hydrogels over [...] Read more.
Finite element modeling applied to analyze experimentally determined hydrogel swelling data provides quantitative description of the hydrogel in the aqueous solutions with well-defined ionic content and environmental parameters. In the present study, we expand this strategy to analysis of swelling of hydrogels over an extended concentration of salt where the Donnan contribution and specific ion effects are dominating at different regimes. Dynamics and equilibrium swelling were determined for acrylamide and cationic acrylamide-based hydrogels by high-resolution interferometry technique for step-wise increase in NaCl and NaBr concentration up to 2 M. Although increased hydrogel swelling volume with increasing salt concentration was the dominant trend for the uncharged hydrogel, the weakly charged cationic hydrogel was observed to shrink for increasing salt concentration up to 0.1 M, followed by swelling at higher salt concentrations. The initial shrinking is due to the ionic equilibration accounted for by a Donnan term. Comparison of the swelling responses at high NaCl and NaBr concentrations between the uncharged and the cationic hydrogel showed similar specific ion effects. This indicates that the ion non-specific Donnan contribution and specific ion effects are additive in the case where they are occurring in well separated ranges of salt concentration. We develop a novel finite element model including both these mechanisms to account for the observed swelling in aqueous salt solution. In particular, a salt-specific, concentration-dependent Flory–Huggins parameter was introduced for the specific ion effects. This is the first report on finite element modeling of hydrogels including specific ionic effects and underpins improvement of the mechanistic insight of hydrogel swelling that can be used to predict its response to environmental change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharide Hydrogels 2.0)
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13 pages, 1014 KiB  
Article
Gel Volume Near the Critical Point of Binary Mixture Isobutyric Acid–Water
by Takao Yamamoto, Motoki Noguchi, Yasuyuki Maki and Toshiaki Dobashi
Gels 2020, 6(3), 30; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030030 - 12 Sep 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2144
Abstract
The volume of a cylindrical polyacrylamide gel was measured when immersed in a binary mixture of isobutyric acid–water at different temperatures and weight fractions of isobutyric acid. Near the upper critical solution temperature of the binary mixture, the curve for gel volume vs. [...] Read more.
The volume of a cylindrical polyacrylamide gel was measured when immersed in a binary mixture of isobutyric acid–water at different temperatures and weight fractions of isobutyric acid. Near the upper critical solution temperature of the binary mixture, the curve for gel volume vs. isobutyric acid weight fraction has a shoulder or a peak near the critical weight fraction. On the other hand, in a region away from the critical temperature, the gel volume decreased monotonically with increasing isobutyric acid weight fraction. The cloud point temperature of the binary mixture inside the gel was lower than that outside the gel. Thermodynamic description for the gel in the critical mixture is derived on the basis of the Ising model. By the description, the experimental results are explained consistently. The theoretical analysis shows that the shoulder and the peak appearing in the swelling behavior of the gel are respectively induced by the criticalities of the binary mixture outside and inside the gel. It also shows that the cloud point temperature lowering of the binary mixture inside the gel is attributed to the effective enhancement of the temperature of the binary mixture inside the gel induced by the presence of the gel polymer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Era in the Volume Phase Transition of Gels)
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59 pages, 4034 KiB  
Review
Cryostructuring of Polymeric Systems. 55. Retrospective View on the More than 40 Years of Studies Performed in the A.N.Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds with Respect of the Cryostructuring Processes in Polymeric Systems
by Vladimir I. Lozinsky
Gels 2020, 6(3), 29; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030029 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5232
Abstract
The processes of cryostructuring in polymeric systems, the techniques of the preparation of diverse cryogels and cryostructurates, the physico-chemical mechanisms of their formation, and the applied potential of these advanced polymer materials are all of high scientific and practical interest in many countries. [...] Read more.
The processes of cryostructuring in polymeric systems, the techniques of the preparation of diverse cryogels and cryostructurates, the physico-chemical mechanisms of their formation, and the applied potential of these advanced polymer materials are all of high scientific and practical interest in many countries. This review article describes and discusses the results of more than 40 years of studies in this field performed by the researchers from the A.N.Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences—one of the key centers, where such investigations are carried out. The review includes brief historical information, the description of the main effects and trends characteristic of the cryostructuring processes, the data on the morphological specifics inherent in the polymeric cryogels and cryostructurates, and examples of their implementation for solving certain applied tasks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cryogelation and Cryogels 2.0)
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16 pages, 6466 KiB  
Article
In Situ Measurement Methods for the CO2-Induced Gelation of Biopolymer Systems
by Imke Preibisch, Lena-Marie Ränger, Pavel Gurikov and Irina Smirnova
Gels 2020, 6(3), 28; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030028 - 09 Sep 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2717
Abstract
This work presents two novel methods to investigate in situ the carbon dioxide (CO2)-induced gelation of biopolymer-based solutions. The CO2-induced gelation is performed in a viewing cell at room temperature under CO2 pressure (20 to 60 bar), whereby [...] Read more.
This work presents two novel methods to investigate in situ the carbon dioxide (CO2)-induced gelation of biopolymer-based solutions. The CO2-induced gelation is performed in a viewing cell at room temperature under CO2 pressure (20 to 60 bar), whereby calcium precursors are used as cross-linkers. The novel methods allow the in situ optical observation and evaluation of the gelation process via the change in turbidity due to dissolution of dispersed calcium carbonate (CaCO3) particles and in situ pH measurements. The combination of both methods enables the determination of the gelation direction, gelation rate, and the pH value in spatial and temporal resolution. The optical gelation front and pH front both propagate equally from top to bottom through the sample solutions, indicating a direct link between a decrease in the pH value and the dissolution of the CaCO3 particles. Close-to-vertical movement of both gelation front and pH front suggests almost one dimensional diffusion of CO2 from the contact surface (gel–CO2) to the bottom of the sample. The gelation rate increases with the increase in CO2 pressure. However, the increase in solution viscosity and the formation of a gel layer result in a strong decrease in the gelation rate due to a hindrance of CO2 diffusion. Released carbonate ions from CaCO3 dissolution directly influence the reaction equilibrium between CO2 and water and therefore the change in pH value of the solution. Increasing the CaCO3 concentrations up to the solubility results in lower gelation rates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2020)
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16 pages, 4151 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Tissue Engineered Endothelial Cell Networks in Composite Collagen-Agarose Hydrogels
by Houda Ichanti, Sanja Sladic, Stefan Kalies, Axel Haverich, Birgit Andrée and Andres Hilfiker
Gels 2020, 6(3), 27; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030027 - 03 Sep 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4455
Abstract
Scaffolds constitute an important element in vascularized tissues and are therefore investigated for providing the desired mechanical stability and enabling vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. In this study, supplementation of hydrogels containing either MatrigelTM and rat tail collagen I (MatrigelTM/rCOL) or human [...] Read more.
Scaffolds constitute an important element in vascularized tissues and are therefore investigated for providing the desired mechanical stability and enabling vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. In this study, supplementation of hydrogels containing either MatrigelTM and rat tail collagen I (MatrigelTM/rCOL) or human collagen (hCOL) with SeaPlaqueTM agarose were analyzed with regard to construct thickness and formation and characteristics of endothelial cell (EC) networks compared to constructs without agarose. Additionally, the effect of increased rCOL content in MatrigelTM/rCOL constructs was studied. An increase of rCOL content from 1 mg/mL to 3 mg/mL resulted in an increase of construct thickness by approximately 160%. The high rCOL content, however, impaired the formation of an EC network. The supplementation of MatrigelTM/rCOL with agarose increased the thickness of the hydrogel construct by approximately 100% while supporting the formation of a stable EC network. The use of hCOL/agarose composite hydrogels led to a slight increase in the thickness of the 3D hydrogel construct and supported the formation of a multi-layered EC network compared to control constructs. Our findings suggest that agarose/collagen-based composite hydrogels are promising candidates for tissue engineering of vascularized constructs as cell viability is maintained and the formation of a stable and multi-layered EC network is supported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collagen-Based Hydrogels)
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24 pages, 2839 KiB  
Review
On Going to a New Era of Microgel Exhibiting Volume Phase Transition
by Haruma Kawaguchi
Gels 2020, 6(3), 26; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030026 - 17 Aug 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4759
Abstract
The discovery of phenomena of volume phase transition has had a great impact not only on bulk gels but also on the world of microgels. In particular, research on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) microgels, whose transition temperature is close to body temperature, has [...] Read more.
The discovery of phenomena of volume phase transition has had a great impact not only on bulk gels but also on the world of microgels. In particular, research on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) microgels, whose transition temperature is close to body temperature, has made remarkable progress in almost 35 years. This review presents some breakthrough findings in microgels that exhibit volume phase transitions and outlines recent works on the synthesis, structural analysis, and research direction of microgels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Era in the Volume Phase Transition of Gels)
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15 pages, 3627 KiB  
Review
Application of a Clapeyron-Type Equation to the Volume Phase Transition of Polymer Gels
by Toshikazu Takigawa and Jun-ichi Horinaka
Gels 2020, 6(3), 25; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030025 - 14 Aug 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2355
Abstract
The applicability of the Clapeyron equation to the volume phase transition of cylindrical poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-based gels under external force is reviewed. Firstly, the equilibrium conditions for the gels under tension are shown, and then we demonstrate that the Clapeyron equation can be [...] Read more.
The applicability of the Clapeyron equation to the volume phase transition of cylindrical poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-based gels under external force is reviewed. Firstly, the equilibrium conditions for the gels under tension are shown, and then we demonstrate that the Clapeyron equation can be applied to the volume phase transition of polymer gels to give the transition entropy or the transition enthalpy. The transition enthalpy at the volume phase transition obtained from the Clapeyron equation is compared with that from the calorimetry. A coefficient of performance, or work efficiency, for a gel actuator driven by the volume phase transition is also defined. How the work efficiency depends on applied force is shown based on a simple mechanical model. It is also shown that the force dependence of transition temperature is closely related to the efficiency curve. Experimental results are compared with the theoretical prediction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Era in the Volume Phase Transition of Gels)
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36 pages, 10921 KiB  
Review
Volume Transition and Phase Coexistence in Polyelectrolyte Gels Interacting with Amphiphiles and Proteins
by Per Hansson
Gels 2020, 6(3), 24; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030024 - 13 Aug 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3097
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte gels have the capacity to absorb large amounts of multivalent species of opposite charge from aqueous solutions of low ionic strength, and release them at elevated ionic strengths. The reversibility offers the possibility to switch between “storage” and “release” modes, useful in [...] Read more.
Polyelectrolyte gels have the capacity to absorb large amounts of multivalent species of opposite charge from aqueous solutions of low ionic strength, and release them at elevated ionic strengths. The reversibility offers the possibility to switch between “storage” and “release” modes, useful in applications such as drug delivery. The review focuses on systems where so-called volume phase transitions (VPT) of the gel network take place upon the absorption and release of proteins and self-assembling amphiphiles. We discuss the background in terms of thermodynamic driving forces behind complex formation in oppositely charged mixtures, the role played by cross-links in covalent gels, and general aspects of phase coexistence in networks in relation to Gibbs’ phase rule. We also briefly discuss a gel model frequently used in papers covered by the review. After that, we review papers dealing with collapse and swelling transitions of gels in contact with solution reservoirs of macroions and surfactants. Here we describe recent progress in our understanding of the conditions required for VPT, competing mechanisms, and hysteresis effects. We then review papers addressing equilibrium aspects of core–shell phase coexistence in gels in equilibrium. Here we first discuss early observations of phase separated gels and results showing how the phases affect each other. Then follows a review of recent theoretical and experimental studies providing evidence of thermodynamically stable core–shell phase separated states, and detailed analyses of the conditions under which they exist. Finally, we describe the results from investigations of mechanisms and kinetics of the collapse/swelling transitions induced by the loading/release of proteins, surfactants, and amphiphilic drug molecules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Era in the Volume Phase Transition of Gels)
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16 pages, 4034 KiB  
Article
Modelling Organic Gel Growth in Three Dimensions: Textural and Fractal Properties of Resorcinol–Formaldehyde Gels
by Elisha Martin, Martin Prostredny, Ashleigh Fletcher and Paul Mulheran
Gels 2020, 6(3), 23; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030023 - 05 Aug 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2551
Abstract
Tailoring the properties of porous organic materials, such as resorcinol–formaldehyde gels, for use in various applications has been a central focus for many studies in recent years. In order to achieve effective optimisation for each application, this work aims to assess the impact [...] Read more.
Tailoring the properties of porous organic materials, such as resorcinol–formaldehyde gels, for use in various applications has been a central focus for many studies in recent years. In order to achieve effective optimisation for each application, this work aims to assess the impact of the various synthesis parameters on the final textural properties of the gel. Here, the formation of porous organic gels is modelled using a three-dimensional lattice-based Monte Carlo simulation. We model growth from monomer species into the interconnected primary clusters of a gel, and account for varying catalyst concentration and solids content, two parameters proven to control gel properties in experimental work. In addition to analysing the textural properties of the simulated materials, we also explore their fractal properties through correlation dimension and Hurst exponent calculations. The correlation dimension shows that while fractal properties are not typically observed in scattering experiments, they are possible to achieve with sufficiently low solids content and catalyst concentration. Furthermore, fractal properties are also apparent from the analysis of the diffusion path of guest species through the gel’s porous network. This model, therefore, provides insight into how porous organic gels can be manufactured with their textural and fractal properties computationally tailored according to the intended application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels: 6th Anniversary)
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14 pages, 1822 KiB  
Review
Volume Phase Transition in Gels: Its Discovery and Development
by Karel Dušek and Miroslava Dušková-Smrčková
Gels 2020, 6(3), 22; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030022 - 31 Jul 2020
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4587
Abstract
The history of volume phase transition of responsive gels from its theoretical prediction to experimental discovery was described and the major role of mixing Gibbs energy function in theoretical models was stressed. For detailed analysis and fine tuning of the volume phase transition, [...] Read more.
The history of volume phase transition of responsive gels from its theoretical prediction to experimental discovery was described and the major role of mixing Gibbs energy function in theoretical models was stressed. For detailed analysis and fine tuning of the volume phase transition, the generalized Flory–Huggins model with concentration and temperature dependent interaction function coupled with Maxwell construction as a tool is very suitable. Application of expansive stresses can uncover the potential of various swelling gels for volume phase transition. Experimentally, the abrupt, equilibrium-controlled phase transition is often hard to achieve due to passage of gel through states of mechanical instability and slow relaxation processes in macroscopic objects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Era in the Volume Phase Transition of Gels)
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18 pages, 2342 KiB  
Article
Effect of S-triazine Ring Substitution on the Synthesis of Organic Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Xerogels
by Martin Prostredný, Caio Ledingham, Ivan A. Principe, Abdelkarim S. M. Altoumi and Ashleigh J. Fletcher
Gels 2020, 6(3), 21; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030021 - 31 Jul 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2591
Abstract
Resorcinol (R) and formaldehyde (F) gel synthesis has been well-studied along with alternative reagents. We present the synthesis of formaldehyde-based xerogels using chemically similar s-triazine precursors, with comparison to traditional analogues. The substitution ranges from tri-hydroxyl to tri-amine, with an intermediate species, allowing [...] Read more.
Resorcinol (R) and formaldehyde (F) gel synthesis has been well-studied along with alternative reagents. We present the synthesis of formaldehyde-based xerogels using chemically similar s-triazine precursors, with comparison to traditional analogues. The substitution ranges from tri-hydroxyl to tri-amine, with an intermediate species, allowing changing chemistry to be investigated. Each molecule (X) offers different acid/base properties, known to influence gel formation, as well as differences in crosslinking potential. Varying X/F ratios were selected to recreate the stoichiometry used in RF systems, where one represented higher F to match the increased reaction sites of the additives. X/C ratios were selected to probe different catalyst (C) ratios, while working within the range likely to produce viable gels. Results obtained show little impact for ammeline as an additive due to its similarity to resorcinol (activation sites and pKa); while melamine and cyanuric acid show differing behavior depending on the level of addition. Low concentrations show melamine to have the most impact due to increased activation and competition for formaldehyde; while at high concentrations, cyanuric acid is shown to have the greatest impact as it creates a more acidic environment, which diminishes textural character, possibly attributable to larger clusters and/or weaker cross-linking of the system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels: 6th Anniversary)
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33 pages, 4001 KiB  
Review
Thermoresponsive Nanogels Based on Different Polymeric Moieties for Biomedical Applications
by Sobhan Ghaeini-Hesaroeiye, Hossein Razmi Bagtash, Soheil Boddohi, Ebrahim Vasheghani-Farahani and Esmaiel Jabbari
Gels 2020, 6(3), 20; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030020 - 04 Jul 2020
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6791
Abstract
Nanogels, or nanostructured hydrogels, are one of the most interesting materials in biomedical engineering. Nanogels are widely used in medical applications, such as in cancer therapy, targeted delivery of proteins, genes and DNAs, and scaffolds in tissue regeneration. One salient feature of nanogels [...] Read more.
Nanogels, or nanostructured hydrogels, are one of the most interesting materials in biomedical engineering. Nanogels are widely used in medical applications, such as in cancer therapy, targeted delivery of proteins, genes and DNAs, and scaffolds in tissue regeneration. One salient feature of nanogels is their tunable responsiveness to external stimuli. In this review, thermosensitive nanogels are discussed, with a focus on moieties in their chemical structure which are responsible for thermosensitivity. These thermosensitive moieties can be classified into four groups, namely, polymers bearing amide groups, ether groups, vinyl ether groups and hydrophilic polymers bearing hydrophobic groups. These novel thermoresponsive nanogels provide effective drug delivery systems and tissue regeneration constructs for treating patients in many clinical applications, such as targeted, sustained and controlled release. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels: 6th Anniversary)
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3 pages, 192 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial on Special Issues “Aerogels” and “Aerogels 2018”
by Françoise Quignard and Nathalie Tanchoux
Gels 2020, 6(3), 19; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/gels6030019 - 29 Jun 2020
Viewed by 1953
Abstract
Aerogels can be defined as ultralight materials with a 3D porous structure, similar to their parent wet gels, where the solvent has been replaced by a gas without a collapse of the gel structure, thanks to the drying process used (supercritical CO2 [...] Read more.
Aerogels can be defined as ultralight materials with a 3D porous structure, similar to their parent wet gels, where the solvent has been replaced by a gas without a collapse of the gel structure, thanks to the drying process used (supercritical CO2 drying, freeze drying, etc [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2018)
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