Physical–Mechanical and Mineralogical Properties of Fired Bricks of the Archaeological Site of Harran, Turkey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Site of Harran
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Visual Analyses
3.2.2. Physical Analyses
3.2.3. Mechanical and Mineralogical Analyses
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Visual Analyses
4.2. Physical Analyses
5. Conclusions
- The visual analyses of the bricks allowed to describe them based on their colors. Importantly, this is a potential source of cultural and heritage information and can provide useful information about the identity, chronology, technology, labor, resources, and environmental conditions of the site of Harran, in Turkey.
- The mechanical properties (compressive and bending strengths), porosity, and density of the bricks have been compared with the scarce existing data for other sites in the macro-region (Asia minor, southern Europe, northern Africa). Also taking into account the limited experimental base, it can be concluded that the mechanical properties are consistent with the ones of other sites, even if a large scattering of results was noted from one site to another. It seems that bricks’ mechanical characteristics from Roman times for sites in Greece are higher (18–20 MPa for the compressive strength) compared with the compressive strength of the buildings constructed in the Late Antiquity (3rd–10th century).
- It is also possible to note that the compressive and bending strength values of the tested brick samples are very similar and in a limited range (6.69–7.95 MPa for compressive strength, and 0.82–1.86 MPa for bending strength). This could suggest that the Harran masonry monuments, constructed in different periods of time, have been manufactured using a similar or a non-time-varying technology, labor, resources, and environmental conditions. This could strengthen the hypothesis that local skills, construction materials, and methods were passed down from father to son for generations in the family brick companies and were not shattered by the destructions and devastation from frequent wars, changing of rulers, natural disasters that affected the area of Harran.
- The mechanical characterization of the masonry constituent materials (bricks and mortar) of several Harran monuments represents a critical information for future analyses regarding the seismic vulnerability, and the implementation of conservation interventions.
- The minerals seen in the thin-section images of the bricks are cryptocrystals, quartz, ferro magnesium, calcite, and opaque minerals. It can be said that the ferro magnesium minerals within the bricks provide a binding material support to the bricks by decomposition.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Mustafaraj, E. Assessment of Historical Structures, A Case Study of Five Ottoman Mosques in Albania; LAP Lambert Academic Publishing: Saarbrucken, Germany, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Borri, A.; Corradi, M. Architectural heritage: a discussion on conservation and safety. Heritage 2019, 2, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yardım, Y.; Mustafaraj, E. Selected Assessment and Retrofitting Application Techniques for Historical Unreinforced Masonry Buildings. In Handbook of Research on Seismic Assessment and Rehabilitation of Historic Structures; Asteris, P.G., Plevris, V., Eds.; IGI Global: Hershey, PA, USA, 2015; pp. 525–545. [Google Scholar]
- Lorusso, S.; Carbonara, G.; Gentile, M.T. Architectural restoration: different conceptions during centuries. Conserv. Sci. Cult. Herit. 2002, 2, 56–83. [Google Scholar]
- Venice Charter. International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites; ICOMOS Archnet-IJAR: Venice, Italy, 1964; Volume 12, pp. 334–346. [Google Scholar]
- Elia, R.J. ICOMOS adopts archaeological heritage charter: text and commentary. J. Field Archaeol. 1993, 20, 97–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ICOMOS–ISCARSAH Committee. ICOMOS Charter—Principles for the analysis, conservation and structural restoration of architectural heritage. In Proceedings of the ICOMOS 14th General Assembly and Scientific Symposium, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 27–31 October 2003. [Google Scholar]
- The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization meeting in Paris from 17 October to 21 November 1972, at its seventeenth session. In Proceedings of the Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe, Granada, Spain, 3 October 1985.
- Akoz, F.; Yuzer, N. Investigation of Material Properties of Ayasofya Mosque- Sts Sergius and Bacchus-in Istanbul by Using Non-destructive Methods. In Proceedings of the Conference STREMA 95, Structural Studies Repairs and Maintenance of Historical Buildings, Crete, Greece, 4 May 1995; pp. 163–170. [Google Scholar]
- Borri, A.; Corradi, M.; Castori, G.; De Maria, A. A method for the analysis and classification of historic masonry. Bull. Earthq. Eng. 2015, 13, 2647–2665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mustafaraj, E.; Yardım, Y. Repair and Strengthening of Historical Structures: Naziresha’s Mosque in Elbasan. In Proceedings of the 3rd Annual International Conference on Civil Engineering, Athens, Greece, 10–13 June 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Soyluk, A.; Ilerisoy, Z.Y. Dynamic analysis of Dolmabahce masonry clock tower. Gradevinar 2013, 65, 345–352. [Google Scholar]
- Betti, M.; Galano, L. Seismic analysis of historic masonry buildings: The Vicarius Palace in Pescia (Italy). Buildings 2012, 2, 63–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lourenço, P.B. Assessment, diagnosis and strengthening of Outerio church, Portugal. Constr. Build. Mater. 2005, 19, 634–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Faella, C.; Martinelli, E.; Nigro, E.; Paciello, S. Tuff masonry walls strengthened with a new kind of C-FRP sheet: Experimental tests and analysis. In Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 1–6 August 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Yardım, Y.; Mustafaraj, E. Effects of soil settlement and deformed geometry on a historical structure. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2013, 1, 5911–5934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anzoni, A.; Binda, L.; Carpinteri, A.; Invarnizzi, S.; Lacidogna, G. A multilevel approach for the damage assessment of historic masonry towers. J. Cult. Herit. 2009, 11, 459–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Aarle, M.; Schellen, H.; van Schijndel, J. Hygro thermal simulation to predict the risk of frost damage in masonry; effects of climate change. Energy Procedia 2015, 78, 2536–2541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Franzoni, E. State-of-the-art on methods for reducing rising damp in masonry. J. Cult. Herit. 2018, 31, S3–S9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franzoni, E.; Gentilini, C.; Graziani, G.; Bandini, S. Mechanical properties of fired-clay brick masonry models in moist and dry conditions. Key Eng. Mater. 2014, 624, 307–312. [Google Scholar]
- Amde, A.M.; Martin, J.V.; Colville, J. The effects of moisture on compressive strength and modulus of brick masonry. In Proceedings of the 13th International Brick and Block Masonry Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 4–7 July 2004; p. 15043442. [Google Scholar]
- Graubohm, M.; Brameshuber, W. Rehabilitation of Masonry constructions temporarily submerged by Water-influence of Water on the properties of Masonry and Facings, Drying Methods and their Effect. In Proceedings of the 11th Canadian Masonry Symposium, Toronto, ON, Canada, 31 May–3 June 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, B.M. Moisture Problems in Historic Masonry Walls: Diagnosis and Treatment; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1984.
- Borri, A.; Castori, G.; Corradi, M. Determination of shear strength of masonry panels through different tests. Int. J. Archit. Herit. 2015, 9, 913–927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uranjek, M.; Bosiljkov, B.V. Influence of freeze–thaw cycles on mechanical properties of historical brick masonry. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 84, 416–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Binici, H.; Akcan, M.; Aksogan, O.; Resatoglu, R. Physico-chemical and mineralogical study of ancient mortars used in Harran area (Turkey). Adv. Concr. Constr. 2017, 5, 639–658. [Google Scholar]
- Somuncu, M.; Yiğit, T. World heritage sites in Turkey: Current status and problems of conservation and management. CBD 2010, 8, 1–26. [Google Scholar]
- Corradi, M.; Borri, A. A database of the structural behavior of masonry in shear. Bull. Earthq. Eng. 2018, 16, 3905–3930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ertan, T.; Egercioglu, Y. The impact of UNESCO world heritage list on historic urban city centers and its place in urban regeneration: the case of Melaka, Malaysia and Tire, Turkey. Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2016, 216, 591–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bonini, B.S.; Shoup, D.; Zan, L. Understanding cultural heritage in Turkey: institutional context and organisational issues. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 2013, 19, 728–748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garrecht, H. Climatic Problems at Speyer Cathedral-Monitoring as a Contribution to Preservation, RILEM TC 177-MDT. In Proceedings of the Workshop on On-Site Control and Non-Destructive Evaluation of Masonry Structures, Mantova, Italy, 12–14 November 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Kurugol, S.; Gulec, A. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Anadolu Hisarı’s Mortars. In Proceedings of the ISSM 08, 8th International Seminar on Structural Masonry, Istanbul, Turkey, 5–7 November 2008; pp. 513–521. [Google Scholar]
- Boke, H.; Akkurt, S.; Ipekoglu, B.; Ugurlu, E. Characteristics of brick used as aggregate in historic brick-lime mortars and plasters. Cem. Concr. Res. 2006, 36, 1115–1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Radivojevic, A. Investigation of late antique bricks from archaeological sites of contemporary Serbia as a basis of conservation works. Archit. Civ. Eng. 2005, 3, 185–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopez-Arce, P.; Garcia-Guinea, J.; Garcia, M.; Obis, J. Bricks in historical buildings of Toledo City: characterization and restoration. Mater. Charact. 2003, 50, 59–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lopez-Arce, P.; Garcia-Guinea, J. Weathering traces in ancient bricks from historic buildings. Build. Environ. 2005, 40, 929–941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ozkaya, A.O. Properties of Roman Bricks and Mortars Used in Serapis Temple in Bergama. Master’s Thesis, Graduate School of Engineering and Sciences of Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Turkey, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Akoz, F.; Yuzer, N.; Cakır, O.; Kabay, N. Investigation of Material Properties of Dolmabahce Palace Reception (Muayede) Hall’s Dome and Vaults. Stud. Anc. Struct. 2001, 1, 659–668. [Google Scholar]
- Sampson, G. Defeat of Rome in the East: Crassus, the Parthians, and the Disastrous Battle of Carrhae, 53 BC; Pen & Sword Military: Barnsley, UK, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Gray, E.W.; Sherwin-White, S.M.; van der Spek, R.J. Carrhae; Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics: Oxford, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Freely, J. A History of Ottoman Architecture; WIT Press: Southampton, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Daily Sabah. Available online: https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2018/12/26/magnificent-harran-palace-revealed-through-excavations (accessed on 10 July 2020).
- Turkey’s Harran Eyes UNESCO Heritage List. Available online: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture-and-art/turkeys-harran-eyes-unesco-heritage-list/1212521#:~:text=SANLIURFA%2C%20Turkey,UNESCO’s%20tentative%20list%20since%202000 (accessed on 10 July 2020).
- Rice, D.S. Medieval Ḥarran: Studies on its Topography and Monuments, I. Anatol. Stud. 1952, 2, 36–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turkish Archaeonews. Available online: https://turkisharchaeonews.net/site/harran (accessed on 10 July 2020).
- Teutonico, J.M. A Laboratory Manual for Architectural Conservators; ICCROM: Rome, Italy, 1988; pp. 113–118. [Google Scholar]
- RILEM. Tentative recommendations, comission-25-PEM, Recommended tests to measure the deterioration of stone and to assess the effectiveness of treatment methods. Mater. Struct. 1980, 13, 173–253. [Google Scholar]
- TS EN 1936. Natural Stones Test. Methods: Real Density, Apparent Density, Total and Open Porosity Determination; The Turkish Standards Institute: Ankara, Turkey, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Candeias, A.E.; Nogueira, P.; Mirao, J.; Silva, A.S.; Veiga Casa, M.; Ribeir, I.; Seruy, A.I. Characterization of Ancient Mortars: Present Methodology and Future Perspectives; (Project CATHEDRAL—POCI/HEC/57915/2004); Chairmen the European Research Councils Chemistry Committees: Brussels, Belgium, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Kozlu, H.H. Features of Characterization of Historic Mortars and Repair Mortars in the Kayseri Region. Ph.D. Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science, Istanbul, Turkey, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- TS EN 196-1. Cement Strength Tests; Section 1; Turkish Standards Institute: Ankara, Turkey, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Ugurlu, E.; Boke, H. Features of lime mortar and plaster and brick to be used in Khorasan Conservation to be produced. In Proceedings of the 5th National Congress and Exhibition of Building Materials, Istanbul, Turkey, 2020; 3–5 November2010; Volume 3, pp. 385–396. [Google Scholar]
- Pekmezci, I. Cukurova Region (Cilicia) Historical Characterization of Some Mortars Used in Construction and Repair Mortar for Suggestions. Ph.D. Thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Institute of Science, Istanbul, Turkey, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- TS 704. Clay Bricks (Wall Tile); Turkish Standards Institution: Ankara, Turkey, 1979. [Google Scholar]
- Binici, H.; Arocena, J.; Kapur, S.; Aksogan, O.; Kaplan, H. Microstructure of red brick dust and ground basaltic pumice blended cement mortars exposed to magnesium sulphate solutions. Can. Civ. Eng. J. 2009, 36, 1784–1793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turkey Earthquake Risk Map. Available online: https://deprem.afad.gov.tr/deprem-tehlike-haritasi?lang=en (accessed on 10 July 2020).
- Vasanelli, E.; Colangiuli, D.; Calia, A.; Sbartai, Z.M.; Breysse, D. Combining non-invasive techniques for reliable prediction of soft stone strength in historic masonries. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 146, 744–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Binici, H.; Arocena, J.; Kapur, S.; Aksogan, O.; Kaplan, H. Investigation of the physico-chemical and microscopic properties of Ottoman mortars from Erzurum (Turkey). Constr. Build. Mater. 2010, 24, 1995–2002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ozkaya, O.A.; Boke, H. Properties of Roman bricks and mortars used in Serapis temple in the city of Pergamon. Mater. Charact. 2009, 60, 995–1000. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moropoulou, A.; Cakmak, A.; Polikreti, K. Provenance and technology investigation of Agia Sophia bricks, Istanbul, Turkey. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2002, 85, 366–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bağbancı, M.B.; Özcan, R.; Bağbancı, Ö.K. Characterization of Materials Used in the Fourteenth Century the early Ottoman Ördekli Bath, Bursa, Turkey. Stud. Conserv. 2010, 55, 301–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stefanidou, M.; Papayianni, I.; Pachta, V. Analysis and characterization of Roman and Byzantine fired bricks from Greece. Mater. Struct. 2015, 48, 2251–2260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hemeda, S.; Akarish, I.M.; El-Nagga, A.A. Engineering investigations and durability problems of the construction materials of the Roman Babylon of Egypt. Open J. Geol. 2018, 8, 404–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Location of Sample | Sample Designation | Visual Analysis | Water Absorption | Wei ghtDensity | Bending Strength | Compr. Strength | Mineral. Analysis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Burial Mound | HBM | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
University | HU | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
City Walls | HCW | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Castle | HC | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Great Mosque | HGM | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ |
Sample Designation | Colour of Sample | Used in | Organic Additives |
---|---|---|---|
HBM | Walls | No | |
HU | Partition walls | No | |
HCW | Partition walls | No | |
HC | Partition walls | No | |
HGM | Partitions of the mosque | No |
Sample Designation | Water Absorption by Weight (%) | Water Absorption by Volume (%) |
---|---|---|
HBM | 32.35 | 41.16 |
HU | 25.46 | 33.35 |
HCW | 17.30 | 26.64 |
HC | 18.49 | 25.54 |
HGM | 38.12 | 45.43 |
Sample Designation | Apparent Density (g/cm³) | Real Density (g/cm³) | Porosity (%) |
---|---|---|---|
HBM | 1.27 | 1.70 | 25.31 |
HU | 1.31 | 1.46 | 10.28 |
HCW | 1.54 | 1.69 | 8.88 |
HC | 1.38 | 1.58 | 12.65 |
HGM | 1.19 | 1.33 | 10.53 |
Sample Designation | Bending Strength σbend (MPa) | Compressive Strength σcompr (MPa) |
---|---|---|
HBM | 1.86 | 7.95 |
HU | 1.36 | 7.18 |
HCW | 1.24 | 6.69 |
HC | 1.26 | 7.43 |
HGM | 0.82 | 7.21 |
Site | Compressive Strength σcompr (MPa) | Density (g/cm³) | Porosity (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Serapis temple, Pergamon, 2nd century, Bergama, Turkey [59] | 6.0 | 1.65 | 35 |
Agia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey, 6th century [60] | - | 1.55–1.90 | 45 |
Ottoman Ördekli Bath, Bursa, Turkey, 14th century [61] | 8.9–10.1 | 1.70 | 38-39.8 |
Filippi, Greece, 2nd century [62] | 18.78 | 1.678 | 22.02 |
Galerius Palace, Greece, 4th century [62] | 19.80 | 1.756 | 15.78 |
Site of Dion, Greece, 4th century [62] | 4.62 | 1.638 | 22.38 |
Site of Palatiano, Greece, 4th century [62] | 20.72 | 1.69 | 15.96 |
Byzantine monuments, Thessaloniki, Greece, 7–11th century [62] | 4.5–16.08 | 1.46–1.84 | 16.02–29.8 |
Roman Babylon of Egypt, 4th century, [63] | 1.6–9.2 | 1.4–1.8 | 17.3–43.2 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Binici, H.; Binici, F.; Akcan, M.; Yardim, Y.; Mustafaraj, E.; Corradi, M. Physical–Mechanical and Mineralogical Properties of Fired Bricks of the Archaeological Site of Harran, Turkey. Heritage 2020, 3, 1018-1034. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3030055
Binici H, Binici F, Akcan M, Yardim Y, Mustafaraj E, Corradi M. Physical–Mechanical and Mineralogical Properties of Fired Bricks of the Archaeological Site of Harran, Turkey. Heritage. 2020; 3(3):1018-1034. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3030055
Chicago/Turabian StyleBinici, Hanifi, Fatih Binici, Mehmet Akcan, Yavuz Yardim, Enea Mustafaraj, and Marco Corradi. 2020. "Physical–Mechanical and Mineralogical Properties of Fired Bricks of the Archaeological Site of Harran, Turkey" Heritage 3, no. 3: 1018-1034. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3030055