Polysaccharides: Sources, Characteristics, Properties, and Their Application in Biodegradable Films
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sources and Characteristics of Polysaccharides
2.1. Plant Polysaccharides
- Starch is a homopolysaccharide made up of glucose units, which form linear amylose chains linked by α-(1–4) bonds and branched amylopectin chains that are connected to amylose by α-(1–6) bonds [13]. Starch is the main storage carbohydrate of green plants, which has been isolated and used as a raw material for the manufacture of drugs, plastics, paints, and cardboard. Commercially, starch is mainly extracted from corn; however, there are other grains and tubers (e.g., rice, wheat, cassava, and potato) that are alternative sources of extraction. The functionality of starch is based on its properties of viscosity, water retention, and gel formation. However, there is research showing that these properties are influenced by the physical (e.g., particle size) and chemical (i.e., proportion of amylopectin and amylose) characteristics of the starch granules; therefore, it is very common to seek to modify the starch properties natives through physical, chemical, or enzymatic processes [14]. Starch is the most studied natural polymer because it is a promising candidate due to its availability, low price, and high biodegradability [15].
- Cellulose is the most abundant, economic, and available carbohydrate polymer in the world because it can be extracted from plants or their waste [16]. Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of a linear chain of glucose linked by β-(1–4) bonds. The hydroxyl groups present in its structure are responsible for the intermolecular hydrogen bonds that are formed, resulting in a compact and crystalline structure; however, these links can cause an irregular three-dimensional conformation causing amorphous regions in the molecule [17]. Cellulose is used in health areas for its antibacterial activity, however, its main application is in the generation of materials and matrices [16].
- Pectin is a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of terrestrial plants, mainly in the skin of fruits and vegetables (e.g., citrus). It is made up of a galacturonic acid backbone linked by α-(1–4) bonds, which may have substitutions of rhamnose units by α-(1–2) bonds, with side-chains composed of arabinose, xylose, or galactose [18]. Pectin is soluble in water and has a high viscosity, which is appreciated for generating gels; particularly in the food industry, these properties allow it to act as a food additive in the production of jams, jellies, and confectionery [19].
- Gums are highly branched complex carbohydrates composed of various sugars such as arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and mannose; however, they can also be mixed with proteins or resins, characterized by having colloidal properties [20]. Gums are mainly extracted from plants, seeds, trees, and shrubs (e.g., Arabic, karaya, and cashew gums; however, they are also produced by bacteria. Gums are gelling, thickening, emulsifying, and stabilizing agents, with applications in the food, textile, pharmaceutical, cosmetic product, coating, encapsulant, and film industries [21].
2.2. Algal Polysaccharides
- Agar is a thermoreversible material composed of a linear chain of galactopyranose units linked by (1–4) bonds [24]. This gelatinous substance has gelling, thickening, texturizing, and stabilizing properties, and it is mainly used in the food industry (e.g., beverages, confectionery, dairy products, and dressings) and in bacteriological and biotechnological processes (e.g., culture media) [25].
- Carrageenans and galactans are extracted polysaccharides from marine red algae with very similar characteristics. Galactans are composed of a chain of galactoses linked by (1–6) bonds with (1–3) branches [26], while carrageenans have their main chain of galactoses linked by (1–3) bonds and branches with (1–4) links [27]. Both polysaccharides are used as gelling and thickening agents in the food industry due to their rheological properties. In addition, they are important in the medical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic areas due to their antiviral, antitumor, and anticoagulant activity [28].
- Alginate is a heteropolysaccharide that is extracted mainly from brown algae, consisting of guluronic and mannuronic acids [29]. It is characterized by its resistance and flexibility, which give it high viscosity and stability, as well as gelling properties [30]. In addition, it is valued for its antibacterial activity, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and biocompatibility. Its industrial application is directed particularly toward the generation of particles, matrix materials, encapsulants, or biocontrol agents [29].
2.3. Animal Polysaccharides
- Chitin is a nitrogenous polysaccharide made up of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine that is extracted from the external skeletons of crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters, and krill), invertebrate animals (e.g., octopuses, clams, and snails), insects (e.g., scorpions, ants, and spiders), and some fungi [33]. This polysaccharide has a crystalline structure; however, its association with protein molecules produces amorphous zones, which makes its application extensive. For example, chitin is used as an enzyme immobilizer, as well as for the generation of biosensors, excipients, and drug vehicles, due to its gel-forming properties [34].
- When chitin reaches 50% deacetylation it becomes a semicrystalline material called chitosan. This polymer is the only one with pseudo-natural cationic characteristics [34]. In addition, the structural and chemical change of chitin to chitosan makes it totally soluble, biodegradable, biocompatible, and antimicrobial; thus, its application varies a little with respect to chitin. Studies have demonstrated its use as a flocculant, purifier, gel former, carrier, and microbial biocontrol agent [35].
- Hyaluronic acid is made up of disaccharides of N-acetylglucosamine and glucuronic acid linked by (1–3) and (1–4) bonds, and it is found in the body tissues and fluids of vertebrate animals and some bacteria [36]. This polysaccharide is of commercial interest due to its antigenic potential and viscoelastic properties; in particular, the pharmaceutical, dermatological, and cosmetic industries use it as a preservative, healing, and anti-wrinkle agent [37].
2.4. Bacterial Polysaccharides
- Dextran is an exopolysaccharide generally synthesized by lactic acid bacteria. Its structure is made up of glucose linked by α-(1–6) bonds and branches with α-(1–2), α-(1–3), or α-(1–4) links. Commercial dextran is produced by Leuconostoc mesenteroides (generally recognized as safe, GRAS); therefore, its application is mainly directed toward food products (e.g., bakery and confectionery) taking advantage of its gelling, texturizing, and emulsifying properties. However, the properties of dextran are a function of the producing strain (e.g., Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus) and the structural and physicochemical characteristics they possess [40,41].
- Gellan, commercially known as gellan gum, is a polysaccharide with a linear structure of acetylated tetrasaccharide units synthesized by Sphingomonas elodea. Its rheological properties give it a gelling action, which is why it is used in the formation of matrices, tissue engineering, and encapsulation [42,43].
- Xanthan, commercially known as xanthan gum, is a heteropolysaccharide of pentasaccharide units synthesized by Xanthomonas campestris. It is important for the textile, medical, and food industries for its stabilizing, thickening, and gelling properties [44]. It is a gum with wide applications, since its stability and characteristics depend on pH and temperature; however, its synthesis is limited by high production costs [45].
- Levan is a polymer made up of fructose linked by β-(2–6) bonds and branches with β-(2–1) links [46]. The structure and molecular weight of the polymer depend on the producing organism (e.g., Acetobacter, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas) and the fermentation conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, and sucrose concentration); hence, each type of levan has its own functional properties, stability, viscosity, and immunogenic activity. Its application is directed toward the food industry as a texture and flavor enhancer, prebiotic, and stabilizer; in addition, it is used as a coating for nanoparticles [47].
2.5. Fungal Polysaccharides
- Elsinan is an extracellular polysaccharide made up of α-(1–3) and α-(1–4) linked maltotriose and maltotetraose units produced by Elsinoe spp. when exposed to a medium with maltose, glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starch. Elsinan is soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents, and it exhibits high viscosity; thus, its main function is to form films [50].
- Pullulan is a linear homopolysaccharide synthesized by Aureobasidium pullulans; it is made up of maltotriose and maltotetraose units with α-(1–3), α-(1–4), and α-(1–6) bonds, with a three-dimensional structure similar to maltodextrin and amylopectin [50]. In industry, it is used as a substitute for gelatin due to its rheological characteristics, with the capability of forming gels, coatings, films, and encapsulates; in addition, it is a dietary prebiotic and a stabilizer [47].
- β-Glucan is a dietary fiber located in the cell wall of algae, bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its structure is made up of glucose monomers linked through β-(1–3) glycosidic bonds in bacteria and algae, β-(1–3) and β-(1–4) bonds in bacteria, or β-(1–3) and β-(1–6) in yeasts and fungi. This polysaccharide may be soluble or insoluble in water depending on its structure and molecular weight; its applications stem from its hypocholesterolemic effect, viscosity, and resistance to acidic pH [18,51].
- Galactan is a polysaccharide made up of galactoses linked by β-(1–4) and sometimes β-(1–6) bonds [52], produced not only by fungi, but also by algae, animals, plants, and other microorganisms. Galactan is important in the pharmaceutical industry due to its antithrombotic, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities, while the food industry uses it as a food supplement [53].
3. Biodegradable Films
Characteristics and Properties of Biodegradable Films
- (1)
- prevent or mitigate mechanical damage,
- (2)
- prevent or reduce lipid oxidation,
- (3)
- prevent or reduce microbial spoilage,
- (4)
- control oxygen absorption,
- (5)
- generate a selective barrier to carbon dioxide and water vapor,
- (6)
- regulate the generation of ethylene to delay senescence,
- (7)
- regulate the release of food additives (e.g., antioxidants, dyes, and flavors).
4. Biodegradable Films Based on Polysaccharides
4.1. Biodegradable Films Based on Starches
4.2. Biodegradable Films Based on Celluloses and Derivates
4.3. Biodegradable Films Based on Pectins
4.4. Biodegradable Films Based on Gums
4.5. Biodegradable Films Based on Agars
5. Concluding Remarks
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Polysaccharide(s) or Derivate(s) | Plasticizer(s) or Additive(s) | Mechanical Properties | Barrier Properties | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TS (MPa) | E (MPa) | EB (%) | WVP (10−10 g·m−1·s−1·Pa−1) | |||
Plant polysaccharide(s) | ||||||
Acid alcohol sorghum starch | Glycerol | ~1.0–1.4 | nr | ~5.0–6.0 | nr | [80] |
Acetylated sorghum starch | Glycerol | ~0.2–2.8 | nr | ~4.0–19.0 | nr | [80] |
Basil seed gum | Glycerol | 21.3 | nr | 25.9 | 237.0 | [81] |
Basil seed gum modified | Glycerol | 26.5–46.4 | nr | 23.8–36.9 | 120.0–215.0 | [81] |
Butylated hemicelluloses | nr | ~40.0–50.0 | ~40.0–55.0 | ~9.0–10.0 | nr | [82] |
Cassava starch | Glycerol | 2.4 | 51.8 | 43.8 | 2.8 | [83] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose | Glycerol | 32.3 | nr | 35.6 | 861.7 | [84] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose | Glycerol | 20.0 | nr | 30.4 | ~2830.0 | [85] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose | nr | ~37.5 | nr | ~26.0 | ~3.4 | [86] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanofiber | Glycerol | 20.2–23.1 | nr | 22.8–46.6 | 1083.3–1421.7 | [84] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose/inulin | Glycerol | 7.3–21.9 | nr | 20.2–37.8 | 935.0–1125.0 | [84] |
Carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanofiber/inulin | Glycerol | 16.4–23.8 | nr | 34.6–41.3 | 978.3–1540.0 | [84] |
Carrot flour | nr | ~3.0 | <0.1 * | <0.1 | nr | [87] |
Carrot flour/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose | nr | ~3.0–7.0 | ~0.4–0.6 * | ~1.0–2.0 | ~0.4–0.7 | [87] |
Cellulose regenerated | nr | ~70.0 | ~98.0 | ~6.0 | nr | [82] |
Cellulose acetate | nr | ~80.0 | ~80.0 | ~22.5 | nr | [82] |
Cellulose carbamate | Glycerol | ~45.0 | ~80.0 | ~10.0 | nr | [82] |
Cellulose palmitate | nr | ~10.0 | ~10.0 | ~27.5 | nr | [82] |
Cellulose octanoate | nr | ~10.0 | ~10.0 | ~117.5 | nr | [82] |
Corn/octenylsuccinated starch | Glycerol | 4.4 | nr | 45.7 | 2.9 | [88] |
Guar gum | Glycerol | 5.3 | 8.9 | 64.8 | 38.6 | [89] |
Guar gum | Tween-20 | 41.9 * | nr | 1.8 | nr | [90] |
Guar gum | Glycerol | 18.0 | 46.7 * | 31.6 | nr | [91] |
Guar gum/potato starch | Glycerol | 8.3 | nr | 8.6 | <0.1 | [92] |
Hydrolyzed achira starch | Glycerol | 9.5 | 388.1 | 24.1 | 2.1 | [93] |
Hydrolyzed-succinated achira starch | Glycerol | 10.5 | 513.4 | 42.8 | 3.2 | [93] |
Hydrothermal sorghum starch | Glycerol | ~0.7–6.5 | nr | ~7.0–14.0 | nr | [80] |
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose | nr | ~67.0 | ~1.8 * | ~14.0 | ~0.2 | [87] |
Karaya gum | Glycerol | 6.5 | nr | 8.0 | 58.5 | [94] |
Lemang bamboo microcrystalline cellulose | Glycerol | 17.2–41.9 | 129.0–253.0 | 8.7–27.1 | 2.5–4.9 | [95] |
Methylated guar gum | Glycerol | 3.4 | 7.2 * | 40.1 | nr | [96] |
Methylcellulose | nr | ~70.0 | ~80.0 | ~17.5 | nr | [82] |
Methylated guar gum | Glycerol | 5.6–11.3 | 25.0–47.4 * | 36.0–49.4 | nr | [91] |
Microcrystalline cellulose | Glycerol | 13.7–35.7 | 116.0–206.0 | 18.0–23.1 | 3.0–5.4 | [95] |
Native achira starch | Glycerol | 1.1 | 532.7 | 5.9 | 2.7 | [93] |
Native potato starch | Glycerol | 3.9 | 45.1 | 81.0 | 2.4 | [97] |
Native sorghum starch | Glycerol | ~0.5–4.2 | nr | ~2.0–10.5 | nr | [80] |
Nanocellulose | nr | ~110.0 | ~115.0 | ~12.5 | nr | [82] |
Ozonated potato starch | Glycerol | 3.3–4.2 | 61.1–64.1 | 19.2–28.4 | 2.6–3.0 | [97] |
Ozonated cassava starch | Glycerol | 3.8–5.5 | 71.2–82.0 | 37.4–39.5 | 3.1–3.5 | [83] |
Pectin | nr | 6.8–7.3 | 27.2–33.6 | 18.9–21.8 | nr | [98] |
Pectin | Glycerol | 9.6 | nr | 14.5 | 6180.0 | [99] |
Pectin | Sorbitol | 50.0 | nr | 18.0 | 4020.0 | [99] |
Pectin | Glycerol | 14.2–18.4 | nr | 0.6–1.3 | 14.5–15.5 | [100] |
Pectin | Natural deep eutectic solvent | 10.7–14.3 | nr | 0.5–1.2 | 22.0–24.8 | [100] |
Pectin | Choline chloride | 3.0–10.5 | nr | 0.5–0.8 | 18.3–27.1 | [100] |
Pectin/gelatin | Glycerol | 16.9 | 132.4 | 73.0 | nr | [101] |
Pectin/potato starch | nr | 22.3 | 305.4 | 13.0 | 2.8 | [102] |
Persian gum | Glycerol | <0.1 | nr | ~45.0–50.0 | 130.0–150.0 | [103] |
Persian gum | Glycerol | ~0.8–16.0 | ~5.0–375.0 | ~3.0–60.0 | nr | [104] |
Potato waste starch | Glycerol | ~3.0–17.0 | nr | ~4.0–12.0 | nr | [105] |
Potato waste starch | Sorbitol | ~4.0–24.0 | nr | ~2.0–9.0 | nr | [105] |
Potato starch | nr | 5.1 | nr | 33.7 | nr | [106] |
Succinated achira starch | Glycerol | 7.5 | 321.9 | 82.3 | 2.6 | [93] |
Salvia macrosiphon seed gum | Glycerol | 4.2 | nr | 39.1 | ~50.0 | [107] |
Semantan bamboo microcrystalline cellulose | Glycerol | 25.8–43.1 | 74.0–152.0 | 6.6–22.1 | 2.2–4.6 | [95] |
Tragacanth gum | nr | ~11.0 | nr | ~1.0 | nr | [108] |
Tragacanth gum/polyvinyl alcohol | nr | ~12.0–15.0 | nr | ~5.0–7.5 | nr | [108] |
Algae polysaccharide(s) | ||||||
Agar | nr | ~900.0 | ~30.0 * | ~8.5 | nr | [109] |
Agar | Glycerol | ~500.0–650.0 | ~16.2–22.5 * | ~15.0–19.0 | nr | [109] |
Agar | Glycerol | 22.0 | 1.0 * | 8.3 | 3.17 | [110] |
Agar | Glycerol | 34.9 | 1.2 * | 12.0 | 10.7 | [111] |
Agar | Glycerol | 34.8 | 1.2 * | 11.8 | 11.6 | [112] |
Agar | Glycerol | 28.0–55.5 | nr | 13.0–27.5 | 0.8–0.9 | [113] |
Agar | Glycerol | 47.3 | nr | 14.0 | nr | [114] |
Agar | Polyglycerol | 0.4 | 278.5 | 18.3 | nr | [115] |
Agar | Glycerol | 18.7 | 361.7 | 29.9 | 93.6 | [116] |
Agar | Glycerol | 40.3 | 1.4 * | 19.4 | 19.9 | [117] |
Agar/alginate | Glycerol | 45.2 | nr | 33.0 | ~0.9 | [118] |
Agar/carboxymethyl cellulose | Glycerol | 60.4 | 2.0 * | 14.7 | 22.1 | [119] |
Agar/carboxymethyl cellulose | Glycerol | 44.9 | 1.6 * | 16.0 | 7.1 | [120] |
Agar/k-carrageenan | Glycerol | 45.4 | 3.0 * | 2.5 | 6.6 | [121] |
Agar/carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose nanocrystals | Glycerol | 57.5 | 2.6 * | 10.0 | 8.1 | [120] |
Agar/chitosan | Glycerol | ~35.0–48.0 | nr | ~15.0–21.0 | nr | [122] |
Agar/gellan gum | Glycerol | 29.9 | nr | 29.5 | 19.0 | [123] |
Agar/gellan gum/montmorillonite | Glycerol | 35.3–44.0 | nr | 19.9–24.1 | 16.6–18.1 | [123] |
Agar/gelatin | Glycerol | 3.7–13.6 | 21.6–186.8 | 38.9–45.17 | 145.5–201.0 | [116] |
Agar/konjac glucomannan | Glycerol | ~35.0–47.0 | nr | ~20.0–38.0 | nr | [124] |
Agar/lignin | Glycerol | 44.1 | 1.5 * | 16.1 | 18.5 | [117] |
Agar/pectin | Glycerol | 50.3 | 2.3 * | 4.7 | 4.8 | [125] |
Agar/pullulan | Glycerol | 23.8 | nr | 37.2 | 31.7 | [126] |
Agar/pullulan/montmorillonite | Glycerol | 31.4–37.1 | nr | 28.2–35.2 | 27.2–30.4 | [126] |
Agar/pullulan/montmorillonite/quaternary ammonium silane | Glycerol | 39.7 | nr | 26.9 | 22.0 | [126] |
Agar/nano cellulose | Glycerol | 22.1 | nr | 10.8 | 0.9 | [113] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 44.6 | 1.5 * | 11.0 | 16.2 | [127] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 65.9 | 2.9 * | 4.4 | 18.0 | [128] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 54.9 | 2.7 * | 8.1 | 16.7 | [129] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 17.0–19.1 | nr | 29.5–63.8 | 1.2–2.8 | [130] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 19.2 | 59.6 | 4.4 | 382.0 | [131] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 43.3 | 1.5 * | 11.2 | 16.6 | [132] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 10.0 | nr | 29.8 | 0.4 | [133] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 11.8 | 40.5 | 29.2 | 0.7 | [134] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 57.0 | 3.3 * | 4.4 | 17.2 | [135] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 38.3 | nr | 21.5 | 0.9 | [136] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 22.6 | nr | 14.5 | 0.8 | [137] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | ~49.0 | ~1.5 * | ~85.0 | nr | [138] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 57.0 | 3.3 * | 4.4 | 17.2 | [139] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 7.4 | nr | 32.0 | 1.5 | [140] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol/Tween-20 | 7.4–11.5 | nr | 19.1–43.6 | 1.3–1.5 | [140] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol/Tween-40 | 4.0–9.4 | nr | 37.4–49.8 | 1.6–2.1 | [140] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol/Tween-80 | 8.5–12.6 | nr | 23.5–40.6 | 1.3–1.5 | [140] |
k-Carrageenan | Glycerol | 37.7–54.4 | nr | 56.9–80.7 | 120.1–142.1 | [141] |
k-Carrageenan/cassava starch | Glycerol | 12.2–25.9 | 4.8–27.0 | 8.4–26.4 | 301.0–448.0 | [131] |
k-Carrageenan/cellulose nanocrystals | Glycerol | 38.4–52.7 | nr | 22.9–28.3 | 0.5–0.9 | [136] |
k-Carrageenan/cellulose nanocrystals | Glycerol | ~59.0–85.0 | ~1.7–2.7 * | ~67.0–77.0 | nr | [138] |
k-Carrageenan/pullulan | Glycerol | 54.0 | 3.4 * | 2.7 | 10.0 | [142] |
k-Carrageenan/nanoclay | Glycerol | ~16.0 | nr | ~20.0 | 4.0 | [143] |
Gelatin | Glycerol | 6.17 | 15.0 | 40.9 | 121.8 | [144] |
Gelatin | Glycerol | 1.9 | nr | 91.7 | 6.4 | [99] |
Gelatin | Sorbitol | 5.8 | nr | 93.3 | 2.1 | [99] |
Gelatin | Glycerol | 18.7 | 103.1 | 117.1 | ~5.5 | [145] |
Gelatin | Glycerol | 1.8 | 9.1 | 76.7 | 248.3 | [116] |
Gelatin/agar | Glycerol | 69.1 | 2.4 * | 8.6 | 5.9 | [146] |
Gelatin/k-carrageenan | Glycerol | 43.9 | 3.5 * | 3.2 | 6.1 | [147] |
Gelatin/cress seed gum/chitosan nanoparticles | Glycerol | 7.8–9.4 | 23.2–45.5 | 19.7–34.1 | 109.0–179.3 | [144] |
Animal, bacterial, and fungal polysaccharide(s) | ||||||
Chitosan | Glycerol/Calcium chloride | 1.1 | 2.8 | 38.5 | 601.7 | [148] |
Chitosan/dextran | Glycerol/Calcium chloride | 1.5–2−5 | 1.7–6.5 | 36.2–87.7 | 655.0–993.3 | [148] |
Chitosan | Glycerol | ~17.5 | ~775.0 * | ~5.0 | nr | [149] |
Chitosan | Glycerol | 23.5 | nr | 33.4 | 1.7 | [150] |
Chitosan | Glycerol/Tween-80 | 14.2–37.7 | nr | 15.2–59.2 | 2.2–3.1 | [150] |
Dextran | Sorbitol | 0.7–7.5 | 9.1–1755.0 | 1.0–134.5 | <0.2 | [151] |
Gellan gum | Glycerol | nr | ~6.5 * | ~1.0 | nr | [152] |
Gellan gum | Glycerol | 2.5 * | nr | 55.8 | <0.1 | [153] |
Gellan gum/cassava starch | Glycerol | 24.0–40.0 | 1.3 * | 2.1–4.9 | 17.2–18.6 | [154] |
Gellan gum/guar gum | Glycerol | 2.9–3.0 * | nr | 61.2–68.0 | <0.1 | [153] |
Gellan gum/pectin | Glycerol | 27.0 | 0.3 * | 41.3 | 1.6 | [155] |
Gellan gum/poly(γ-glutamic acid) | Glycerol | ~5.5–13.0 | ~10.0–50.0 | ~1.0–2.5 | nr | [152] |
Gellan gum/xanthan gum | Glycerol | 22.1 | nr | 30.0 | 38.3 | [156] |
Hyaluronic acid/corn starch | Glycerol | 6.3 | nr | 41.7 | nr | [157] |
Xanthan gum | Glycerol | ~17.0 | nr | ~20.0 | nr | [153] |
Xanthan gum | Glycerol | 7.4–8.7 | 54.3–68.7 | 6.3–14.6 | 2.6–3.7 | [158] |
Xanthan gum/cassava starch | Glycerol | 14.0 | 0.7 * | 3.0 | 31.7 | [159] |
Xanthan gum/cassava starch | Glycerol | 4.0–10.0 | 36.0–160.0 | 12.0–34.0 | 7.1–14.0 | [160] |
Xanthan gum/curdlan gum | Glycerol | 27.8 | nr | 12.9 | nr | [161] |
Xanthan gum/curdlan gum/gelatin | Glycerol | 30.3–38.2 | nr | 14.4–18.9 | nr | [161] |
Xanthan gum/curdlan gum | Glycerol | ~18.0–27.5 | nr | ~2.5–17.5 | nr | [153] |
Xanthan gum/maize starch | Glycerol | 9.0 | 0.5 * | 11.0 | 37.2 | [159] |
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Díaz-Montes, E. Polysaccharides: Sources, Characteristics, Properties, and Their Application in Biodegradable Films. Polysaccharides 2022, 3, 480-501. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polysaccharides3030029
Díaz-Montes E. Polysaccharides: Sources, Characteristics, Properties, and Their Application in Biodegradable Films. Polysaccharides. 2022; 3(3):480-501. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polysaccharides3030029
Chicago/Turabian StyleDíaz-Montes, Elsa. 2022. "Polysaccharides: Sources, Characteristics, Properties, and Their Application in Biodegradable Films" Polysaccharides 3, no. 3: 480-501. https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/polysaccharides3030029