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Actuators
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Miniature and Micro-Actuators
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Miniature and Micro-Actuators

A special issue of Actuators (ISSN 2076-0825). This special issue belongs to the section "Miniaturized and Micro Actuators".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 42866

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Jose Luis Sanchez-Rojas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Microsystems, Actuators and Sensors Lab, INAMOL-Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain
Interests: MEMS/NEMS; piezoelectric microsystems; integrated sensors and transducers; miniaturization of instrumentation for applications in chemistry; food technology; robotics; biotechnology and IoT
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In this Special issue, a wide range of topics will be covered, including the design, fabrication, characterization, packaging, and system integration or final applications of miniature actuators, ranging from the centimeter down to the micrometer scale. The main focus of the issue is miniaturization, regardless the materials employed or the device principle. Furthermore, basic as well as more application-oriented research topics are considered, such as:

  • Material research oriented to actuator microsystems: polymers, organic materials, piezoelectric materials, nitrides, shape memory alloys, thermoelectric materials, other functional thin film materials, thick and thin films;
  • Processes and fabrication technologies for miniaturized actuator systems: deposition techniques, lithography, etching and ablation techniques, hybrid technologies, inkjet or 3D printing;
  • Functional surfaces in actuator microdevices: hydrophobic/hydrophilic functionalization, tribological functions, biomimetic surfaces;
  • Modelling and simulation of actuator microsystems from packaged systems down to device level, and CAD tools;
  • Electrostatic, piezoelectric, mechanical, thermal, acoustic, magnetic or any physical actuation principles;
  • Optical MEMS (MOEMS), optoelectronic actuators;
  • Chemical and bioactuators, and artificial muscles;
  • Calibration, characterization and testing techniques for miniature and micro-actuators;
  • Reliability, failure analysis, degradation mechanisms, life time prediction;
  • System integration, interface electronics, packaging and assembly, 3D integration techniques, micromechatronics, and microrobotics;
  • Applications and markets, monitoring, control and measurement systems based on miniaturized/microactuators.

Prof. Dr. Jose Luis Sanchez-Rojas
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Actuators is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Materials for microactuators 
  • Processes and fabrication of miniaturized actuators
  • Modelling and simulation 
  • Actuation principles micromechanisms and geometry scaling 
  • Characterization and testing techniques for micro-actuators 
  • Final applications of miniaturized or micro-actuator devices and systems

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 6725 KiB  
Article
A Paper-Based Cantilever Beam Mini Actuator Using Hygro-Thermal Response
by Laura Alejandra Ireta-Muñoz, Isaias Cueva-Perez, Juan Jose Saucedo-Dorantes and Angel Pérez-Cruz
Actuators 2022, 11(3), 94; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act11030094 - 17 Mar 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2356
Abstract
New technological and scientific advances in the development of sensors and actuators demand the development of new devices to deal with recent problems and challenges in these new and emerging processes. Moreover, paper-based devices have tremendous potential for developing actuators as paper exhibits [...] Read more.
New technological and scientific advances in the development of sensors and actuators demand the development of new devices to deal with recent problems and challenges in these new and emerging processes. Moreover, paper-based devices have tremendous potential for developing actuators as paper exhibits capillary transport and hygroexpansion due to swelling of the fibers when absorbing water. Therefore, this paper proposes a mini actuator that is based on a hygro-thermal-paper-based cantilever beam that is activated by means of a droplet of an aqueous solution in combination with a circulating electrical current to analyze its response. The contribution of this proposal includes the analysis of the flexural response of the mini actuator when it is tested by using two different solutions: distilled water and a water/alcohol solution. Additionally, four cases related to the droplet volume are studied and a statistical analysis of the bending responses is presented. The results achieved show that that water-alcohol solutions have a lower deviation in comparison with water only. Moreover, it is demonstrated that a specific change in the maximum displacement is obtained according to the volume and the type of solution. Thus, it is suggested that the response of the mini actuator can be tuned using different aqueous solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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15 pages, 5864 KiB  
Article
3D-Printed Miniature Robots with Piezoelectric Actuation for Locomotion and Steering Maneuverability Applications
by Víctor Ruiz-Díez, José Luis García-Caraballo, Jorge Hernando-García and José Luis Sánchez-Rojas
Actuators 2021, 10(12), 335; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10120335 - 20 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2951
Abstract
The miniaturization of robots with locomotion abilities is a challenge of significant technological impact in many applications where large-scale robots have physical or cost restrictions. Access to hostile environments, improving microfabrication processes, or advanced instrumentation are examples of their potential use. Here, we [...] Read more.
The miniaturization of robots with locomotion abilities is a challenge of significant technological impact in many applications where large-scale robots have physical or cost restrictions. Access to hostile environments, improving microfabrication processes, or advanced instrumentation are examples of their potential use. Here, we propose a miniature 20 mm long sub-gram robot with piezoelectric actuation whose direction of motion can be controlled. A differential drive approach was implemented in an H-shaped 3D-printed motor platform featuring two plate resonators linked at their center, with built-in legs. The locomotion was driven by the generation of standing waves on each plate by means of piezoelectric patches excited with burst signals. The control of the motion trajectory of the robot, either translation or rotation, was attained by adjusting the parameters of the actuation signals such as the applied voltage, the number of applied cycles, or the driving frequency. The robot demonstrated locomotion in bidirectional straight paths as long as 65 mm at 2 mm/s speed with a voltage amplitude of only 10 V, and forward and backward precise steps as low as 1 µm. The spinning of the robot could be controlled with turns as low as 0.013 deg. and angular speeds as high as 3 deg./s under the same conditions. The proposed device was able to describe complex trajectories of more than 160 mm, while carrying 70 times its own weight. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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11 pages, 3751 KiB  
Article
A Closed-Loop Control Mathematical Model for Photovoltaic-Electrostatic Hybrid Actuator with a Slant Lower Electrode Based on PLZT Ceramic
by Zhen Lv, Muhammad Uzair, Xinjie Wang and Yafeng Liu
Actuators 2021, 10(11), 285; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10110285 - 25 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1984 | Retraction
Abstract
In this paper, a novel photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator with a slant lower electrode based on the PLZT ceramic is proposed. The mathematical model of photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator is established. Then, based on the mathematical model of photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator and the parameters identified, [...] Read more.
In this paper, a novel photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator with a slant lower electrode based on the PLZT ceramic is proposed. The mathematical model of photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator is established. Then, based on the mathematical model of photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator and the parameters identified, the mathematical simulation of the closed-loop displacement control for the photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator based on the PLZT ceramic is carried out. The results show that the displacement of the actuator can be controlled successfully at a particular value within the pull-in displacement by the light source. Furthermore, the response speed of the output displacement for photovoltaic-electrostatic hybrid actuator with a slant lower electrode is faster than that with a parallel lower electrode, offering a good potential to advance the current applications on micro-electro-mechanical system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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14 pages, 7642 KiB  
Article
Optimal Design of Magneto-Force-Thermal Parameters for Electromagnetic Actuators with Halbach Array
by Zhihao Li, Qianqian Wu, Bilong Liu and Zhaopei Gong
Actuators 2021, 10(9), 231; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10090231 - 09 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2315
Abstract
A magnetic levitation isolation system applied for the active control of micro-vibration in space requires actuators with high accuracy, linear thrust and low power consumption. The magneto-force-thermal characteristics of traditional electromagnetic actuators are not optimal, while actuators with a Halbach array can converge [...] Read more.
A magnetic levitation isolation system applied for the active control of micro-vibration in space requires actuators with high accuracy, linear thrust and low power consumption. The magneto-force-thermal characteristics of traditional electromagnetic actuators are not optimal, while actuators with a Halbach array can converge magnetic induction lines and enhance the unilateral magnetic field. To improve the control effect, an accurate magnetic field analytical model is required. In this paper, a magnetic field analytical model of a non-equal-size Halbach array was established based on the equivalent magnetic charge method and the field strength superposition principle. Comparisons were conducted between numerical simulations and analytical results of the proposed model. The relationship between the magnetic flux density at the air gap and the size parameters of the Halbach array was analyzed by means of a finite element calculation. The mirror image method was adopted to consider the influence of the ferromagnetic boundary on the magnetic flux density. Finally, a parametric model of the non-equal-size Halbach actuator was established, and the multi-objective optimization design was carried out using a genetic algorithm. The actuator with optimized parameters was manufactured and experiments were conducted to verify the proposed analytical model. The difference between the experimental results and the analytical results is only 5%, which verifies the correctness of the magnetic field analytical model of the non-equal-size Halbach actuator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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14 pages, 3386 KiB  
Article
Using the Nonlinear Duffing Effect of Piezoelectric Micro-Oscillators for Wide-Range Pressure Sensing
by Tobias Zengerle, Michael Stopp, Abdallah Ababneh and Helmut Seidel
Actuators 2021, 10(8), 172; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10080172 - 24 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2903
Abstract
This paper investigates the resonant behaviour of silicon-based micro-oscillators with a length of 3600 µm, a width of 1800 µm and a thickness of 10 µm over a wide range of ambient gas (N2) pressures, extending over six orders of magnitude [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the resonant behaviour of silicon-based micro-oscillators with a length of 3600 µm, a width of 1800 µm and a thickness of 10 µm over a wide range of ambient gas (N2) pressures, extending over six orders of magnitude from 10−3 mbar to 900 mbar. The oscillators are actuated piezoelectrically by a thin-film aluminium-nitride (AlN) layer, with the cantilever coverage area being varied from 33% up to 100%. The central focus is on nonlinear Duffing effects, occurring at higher oscillation amplitudes. A theoretical background is provided. All relevant parameters describing a Duffing oscillator, such as stiffness parameters for each coverage size as well as for different bending modes and more complex modes, are extracted from the experimental data. The so-called 2nd roof-tile-shaped mode showed the highest stiffness value of −97.3∙107 m−2s−2. Thus, it was chosen as being optimal for extended range pressure measurements. Interestingly, both a spring softening effect and a spring hardening effect were observed in this mode, depending on the percentage of the AlN coverage area. The Duffing-effect-induced frequency shift was found to be optimal for obtaining the highest pressure sensitivity, while the size of the hysteresis loop is also a very useful parameter because of the possibility of eliminating the temperature influences and long-term drift effects of the resonance frequency. An reasonable application-specific compromise between the sensitivity and the measurement range can be selected by adjusting the excitation voltage, offering much flexibility. This novel approach turns out to be very promising for compact, cost-effective, wide-range pressure measurements in the vacuum range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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13 pages, 5487 KiB  
Article
Efficiency Model for Traveling Wave-Type Ultrasonic Motors Based on Contact Variables and Preload
by Haoyu Sun, Hao Yin, Jiang Liu and Xilong Zhang
Actuators 2021, 10(7), 158; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10070158 - 12 Jul 2021
Viewed by 2145
Abstract
The contact interface variables are difficult to measure for an ultrasonic motor. When the ultrasonic motor works under different preloads, the error between the traditional efficiency model and the real output is quite large. In order to solve these two problems, we propose [...] Read more.
The contact interface variables are difficult to measure for an ultrasonic motor. When the ultrasonic motor works under different preloads, the error between the traditional efficiency model and the real output is quite large. In order to solve these two problems, we propose a novel efficiency model. It takes measured preload and the feedback voltage data as the input, which may offer better accuracy and on-line ability. Firstly, the effect of the preload on the drive characteristics is investigated, and the relationship between preload and the change in motor energy input is analyzed. Secondly, a contact model based on measured preload and feedback voltage is built, providing a more accurate description of the contact variables. Finally, an efficiency model was developed with a new composite stator structure. A preload test rig for a 60 mm ultrasonic motor is built and real operating conditions are measured. The results show that the correlation coefficient of the present model is 0.991, larger than 0.925 of the conventional model. The proposed model is more consistent with the real working conditions for the motor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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7 pages, 526 KiB  
Communication
Analytical Modeling and Simulation of S-Drive Piezoelectric Actuators
by Nicholas A. Jones and Jason Clark
Actuators 2021, 10(5), 87; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10050087 - 25 Apr 2021
Viewed by 2238
Abstract
This paper presents a structural geometry for increasing piezoelectric deformation, which is suitable for both micro- and macro-scale applications. New and versatile microstructure geometries for actuators can improve device performance, and piezoelectric designs benefit from a high-frequency response, power density, and efficiency, making [...] Read more.
This paper presents a structural geometry for increasing piezoelectric deformation, which is suitable for both micro- and macro-scale applications. New and versatile microstructure geometries for actuators can improve device performance, and piezoelectric designs benefit from a high-frequency response, power density, and efficiency, making them a viable choice for a variety of applications. Previous works have presented piezoelectric structures capable of this amplification, but few are well-suited to planar manufacturing. In addition to this manufacturing difficulty, a large number of designs cannot be chained into longer elements, preventing them from operating at the macro-scale. By optimizing for both modern manufacturing techniques and composability, this structure excels as an option for a variety of macro- and micro-applications. This paper presents an analytical compact model of a novel dual-bimorph piezoelectric structure, and shows that this compact model is within 2% of a computer-distributed element model. Furthermore it compares the actuator’s theoretical performance to that of a modern actuator, showing that this actuator trades mechanical efficiency for compactness and weight savings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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24 pages, 3029 KiB  
Article
Sense–Analyze–Respond–Actuate (SARA) Paradigm: Proof of Concept System Spanning Nanoscale and Macroscale Actuation for Detection of Escherichia coli in Aqueous Media
by Cassie A. Giacobassi, Daniela A. Oliveira, Cicero C. Pola, Dong Xiang, Yifan Tang, Shoumen Palit Austin Datta, Eric S. McLamore and Carmen L. Gomes
Actuators 2021, 10(1), 2; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act10010002 - 23 Dec 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3923
Abstract
Foodborne pathogens are a major concern for public health. We demonstrate for the first time a partially automated sensing system for rapid (~17 min), label-free impedimetric detection of Escherichia coli spp. in food samples (vegetable broth) and hydroponic media (aeroponic lettuce system) based [...] Read more.
Foodborne pathogens are a major concern for public health. We demonstrate for the first time a partially automated sensing system for rapid (~17 min), label-free impedimetric detection of Escherichia coli spp. in food samples (vegetable broth) and hydroponic media (aeroponic lettuce system) based on temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) nanobrushes. This proof of concept (PoC) for the Sense-Analyze-Respond-Actuate (SARA) paradigm uses a biomimetic nanostructure that is analyzed and actuated with a smartphone. The bio-inspired soft material and sensing mechanism is inspired by binary symbiotic systems found in nature, where low concentrations of bacteria are captured from complex matrices by brush actuation driven by concentration gradients at the tissue surface. To mimic this natural actuation system, carbon-metal nanohybrid sensors were fabricated as the transducer layer, and coated with PNIPAAm nanobrushes. The most effective coating and actuation protocol for E. coli detection at various temperatures above/below the critical solution temperature of PNIPAAm was determined using a series of electrochemical experiments. After analyzing nanobrush actuation in stagnant media, we developed a flow through system using a series of pumps that are triggered by electrochemical events at the surface of the biosensor. SARA PoC may be viewed as a cyber-physical system that actuates nanomaterials using smartphone-based electroanalytical testing of samples. This study demonstrates thermal actuation of polymer nanobrushes to detect (sense) bacteria using a cyber-physical systems (CPS) approach. This PoC may catalyze the development of smart sensors capable of actuation at the nanoscale (stimulus-response polymer) and macroscale (non-microfluidic pumping). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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14 pages, 3820 KiB  
Article
Wireless Walking Paper Robot Driven by Magnetic Polymer Actuator
by Han-Sol Lee, Yong-Uk Jeon, In-Seong Lee, Jin-Yong Jeong, Manh Cuong Hoang, Ayoung Hong, Eunpyo Choi, Jong-Oh Park and Chang-Sei Kim
Actuators 2020, 9(4), 109; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act9040109 - 30 Oct 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3825
Abstract
Untethered small-scale soft robots have been widely researched because they can be employed to perform wireless procedures via natural orifices in the human body, or other minimally invasive operations. Nevertheless, achieving untethered robotic motion remains challenging owing to the lack of an effective [...] Read more.
Untethered small-scale soft robots have been widely researched because they can be employed to perform wireless procedures via natural orifices in the human body, or other minimally invasive operations. Nevertheless, achieving untethered robotic motion remains challenging owing to the lack of an effective wireless actuation mechanism. To overcome this limitation, we propose a magnetically actuated walking soft robot based on paper and a chained magnetic-microparticle-embedded polymer actuator. The magnetic polymer actuator was prepared by combining Fe3O4 magnetic particles (MPs, diameter of ~50 nm) and silicon that are affected by a magnetic field; thereafter, the magnetic properties were quantified to achieve proper force and optimized according to the mass ratio, viscosity, and rotational speed of a spin coater. The fabricated polymer was utilized as a soft robot actuator that can be controlled using an external magnetic field, and paper was employed to construct the robot body with legs to achieve walking motion. To confirm the feasibility of the designed robot, the operating capability of the robot was analyzed through finite element simulation, and a walking experiment was conducted using electromagnetic actuation. The soft robot could be moved by varying the magnetic flux density and on–off state, and it demonstrated a maximum moving speed of 0.77 mm/s. Further studies on the proposed soft walking robot may advance the development of small-scale robots with diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities for application in biomedical fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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14 pages, 4338 KiB  
Article
Presentation, Modeling and Experiments of an Electrostatic Actuator Based Catom for Programmable Matter
by Romain Catry, Abdenbi Mohand-Ousaid, Micky Rakotondrabe and Philippe Lutz
Actuators 2020, 9(2), 43; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act9020043 - 04 Jun 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4472
Abstract
Nowadays, the concept of programmable matter paves the way for promising applications such as reshaping an object to test different configurations, modeling or rapid prototyping. Based on elementary modules, such matter can be arranged and disassembled easily according to the needs of the [...] Read more.
Nowadays, the concept of programmable matter paves the way for promising applications such as reshaping an object to test different configurations, modeling or rapid prototyping. Based on elementary modules, such matter can be arranged and disassembled easily according to the needs of the designers. Several solutions have been proposed to implement this concept. Most of them are based on modular self-reconfigurable robotics (SMR) that can work together and move relatively to one another in order to change their configuration. Achieving such behavior requires to solve some technological challenges in particular module’s geometry and actuation. In this paper, we build and develop a proof of concept for a catom based on electrostatic actuation. The modeling and analysis of the actuator functioning as catom is given after a comparison of various possible actuation. Simulations as well as experiments validations are afterwards carried out to confirm and demonstrate the efficiency of electrostatic actuation to achieve latching capabilities of the proposed catom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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10 pages, 3903 KiB  
Article
Development of Haptic Stylus for Manipulating Virtual Objects in Mobile Devices
by Dong-Soo Choi, In-Ho Yun, Tae-Hoon Kim, SangKyu Byeon and Sang-Youn Kim
Actuators 2020, 9(2), 30; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act9020030 - 14 Apr 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4992
Abstract
In mobile devices, the screen size limits conveyance of immersive experiences; haptic feedback coupled with visual feedback is expected to have a better effect to maximize the level of immersion. Therefore, this paper presents a miniature tunable haptic stylus based on magnetorheological (MR) [...] Read more.
In mobile devices, the screen size limits conveyance of immersive experiences; haptic feedback coupled with visual feedback is expected to have a better effect to maximize the level of immersion. Therefore, this paper presents a miniature tunable haptic stylus based on magnetorheological (MR) fluids to provide kinesthetic information to users. The designed stylus has a force generation, force transmission, and housing part; moreover, in the stylus, all three operating modes of MR fluids contribute to the haptic actuation to produce a wide range of resistive force generated by MR fluids in a limited size, thereby providing a variety of pressing sensations to users. A universal testing machine was constructed to evaluate haptic performance of the proposed haptic stylus, whose resistive force was measured with the constructed setup as a function of pressed depth and input current, and by varying the pressed depth and pressing speed. Under maximum input voltage, the stylus generates a wide range of resistive force from 2.33 N to 27.47 N, whereas under maximum pressed depth it varied from 1.08 N to 27.47 N with a corresponding change in voltage input from 0 V to 3.3 V. Therefore, the proposed haptic stylus can create varied haptic sensations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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14 pages, 3162 KiB  
Article
Piezoelectric Actuators for Tactile and Elasticity Sensing
by Javier Toledo, Víctor Ruiz-Díez, Jorge Hernando-García and José Luis Sánchez-Rojas
Actuators 2020, 9(1), 21; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/act9010021 - 19 Mar 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4948
Abstract
Piezoelectric actuators have achieved remarkable progress in many fields, being able to generate forces or displacements to perform scanning, tuning, manipulating, tactile sensing or delivering functions. In this work, two piezoelectric PZT (lead zirconate titanate) bimorph actuators, with different tip contact materials, were [...] Read more.
Piezoelectric actuators have achieved remarkable progress in many fields, being able to generate forces or displacements to perform scanning, tuning, manipulating, tactile sensing or delivering functions. In this work, two piezoelectric PZT (lead zirconate titanate) bimorph actuators, with different tip contact materials, were applied as tactile sensors to estimate the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus, of low-stiffness materials. The actuators were chosen to work in resonance, taking advantage of a relatively low resonant frequency of the out-of-plane vibrational modes, associated with a convenient compliance, proven by optical and electrical characterization. Optical measurements performed with a scanning laser vibrometer confirmed that the displacement per applied voltage was around 437 nm/V for the resonator with the lower mass tip. In order to determine the modulus of elasticity of the sensed materials, the stiffness coefficient of the resonator was first calibrated against a force sensor, obtaining a value of 1565 ± 138 N/m. The actuators were mounted in a positioning stage to allow approximation and contact of the sensor tip with a set of target materials. Electrical measurements were performed using the resonator as part of an oscillator circuit, and the modulus of elasticity of the sample was derived from the contact resonant frequency curve of the cantilever–sample system. The resulting sensor is an effective, low-cost and non-destructive solution compared to atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. Materials with different modulus of elasticity were tested and the results compared to values reported in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Miniature and Micro-Actuators)
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