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The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies

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A special issue of Agriculture (ISSN 2077-0472). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 June 2023) | Viewed by 21843

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Gerard Arbat

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemical and Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Girona, C/de Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 61. 17071 Girona, Spain
Interests: smart irrigation technologies; use of sensors, water-use efficiency; soil water modeling; drip irrigation; paddy fields and irrigation with reclaimed effluents
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Daniele Masseroni

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Guest Editor

Departement of Agricultural and Enviromental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy
Interests: agricultural water management; automation in irrigation; water quality; watershed restoration; agro-hydrological modelling; nature-based solutions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Agricultural irrigation systems provide food to meet the growing demands of the global population. As a result of climate change, irrigated agroecosystems face threats such as excessive runoff, soil erosion, salinization, water pollution, over-irrigation, and water shortages, among others. These challenges can be met at multiple levels, but mainly through the use of technology which provides instruments and methodologies to deal with major environmental challenges, saving water and increasing crop yield. Tailored management approaches of water resources for irrigation based on the application of agro-hydrological models and decision-support tools at different scales are effective approaches to maintaining reliable and flexible water allocation during periods of water shortage, preserving water for environmental requirements, and decreasing conflicts between water users.

In semi-arid and arid regions, where irrigated agriculture is threatened by water scarcity saline or treated wastewater becomes a resource, nonetheless, potential hazards to the environment/humans are a concern. This requires further research, as well as the application of innovative technologies and decision tools to provide secure solutions promoting actual and future resilient irrigation management.

It is necessary to promote research and dissemination of water management results in different irrigated agroecosystems where advanced technologies and innovative methodologies are used for efficient irrigation management and soil and water conservation.

Within this framework, this Special Issue offers an opportunity to gather studies and multidisciplinary approaches related to advanced technologies and innovative methodologies for irrigation management.

Dr. Gerard Arbat
Dr. Daniele Masseroni
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agriculture is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

smart irrigation
agro-hydrological models
evapotranspiration models, soil-water monitoring
soil health
automatic and remote-controlled systems for irrigation
irrigation with marginal water.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 174 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies

by Gerard Arbat and Daniele Masseroni

Agriculture 2024, 14(2), 236; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture14020236 - 31 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1061

Abstract

Agricultural irrigation systems help provide food to meet the growing demands of the global population [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

24 pages, 5989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The FC Algorithm to Estimate the Manning’s Roughness Coefficients of Irrigation Canals

by Enrique Bonet, Beniamino Russo, Ricard González, Maria Teresa Yubero, Manuel Gómez and Martí Sánchez-Juny

Agriculture 2023, 13(7), 1351; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture13071351 - 04 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1172

Abstract

Freshwater scarcity has driven the integration of technological advancements and automation systems in agriculture in order to attempt to improve water-use efficiency. For irrigation canals, water-use efficiency is, in great measure, limited by the performance of management systems responsible for controlling the flow and delivering water to the farmers. Recent studies show a significant sensitivity of the results obtained from irrigation canal control algorithms with respect to the Manning’s roughness coefficient value, thus, highlighting the importance of its correct estimation to ensure an accurate and efficient water delivery service. This is the reason why the friction coefficient algorithm was developed, to monitor the real behaviour of any irrigation canal by calculating the Manning’s roughness coefficient constantly. The friction coefficient algorithm was conceived as a powerful offline tool that is integrated in a control diagram of any irrigation canal, concretely in an optimization control algorithm, which can reconfigure canal gates according to the current crop water demand and the real Manning’s roughness coefficient values. The friction coefficient algorithm has been applied in several irrigation canals and different scenarios, with accurate results obtaining an average Manning coefficient deviation among 2 × 10⁻⁴ and 4.5 × 10⁻⁴. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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27 pages, 7440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Variations in Chemical Proprieties of Waterbodies within Coastal Polders: Forecast Modeling for Optimizing Water Management Decisions

by Davor Romić, Marko Reljić, Marija Romić, Marina Bagić Babac, Željka Brkić, Gabrijel Ondrašek, Marina Bubalo Kovačić and Monika Zovko

Agriculture 2023, 13(6), 1162; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture13061162 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1154

Abstract

In polder-type land, water dynamics are heavily influenced by the artificial maintenance of water levels. Polders are low-lying areas of land that have been reclaimed from the sea or from freshwater bodies and are protected from flooding by dikes or other types of flood-protection structures. The water regime in polders is typically managed using a system of canals, pumps, and sluices to control the flow of water in and out of the area. In this study, the temporal changes in water salinity in the polder-type agricultural floodplain within the Neretva River Delta (NRD), Croatia, were analyzed by applying multivariate statistics and forecast modelling. The main aim of the study was to test the model that can be used in practice to forecast, primarily, water suitability for irrigation in a coastal low-lying agricultural catchment. The specific aim of this study was to use hydrochemistry data series to explain processes in water salinity dynamics and to test the model which may provide accurate salinity prediction, or finally select the conditions in which the model can be applied. We considered the accuracy of the model, and it was validated using independent data sets. To describe different patterns of chemical changes in different water classes due to their complex hydrological connectivity, multivariate statistics (PCA) were coupled with time-series analysis and Vector Autoregression (VAR) model forecasting. The multivariate statistics applied here did not indicate a clear connection between water salinity of the surface-water bodies and groundwater. The lack of correlation lies in the complex hydrological dynamics and interconnectivity of the water bodies highly affected by the artificial maintenance of the groundwater level within the polder area, as well as interventions in the temporal release of freshwater into the drainage canal network. Not all individual water classes contributed equally to the dominant patterns of ionic species identified by PCA. Apparently, land use and agricultural management practices in the different polders lead to uneven water chemistry and the predominant contributions of specific ions, especially nutrients. After applying the Granger causality test to reveal the causal information and explain hidden relationships among the variables, only two surface-water and two groundwater monitoring locations displayed a strong causal relationship between water electrical conductivity (EC_w) as an effect and sea level as a possible cause. The developed models can be used to evaluate and emphasize the unique characteristics and phenomena of low-lying land and to communicate their importance and influence to management authorities and agricultural producers in managing and planning irrigation management in the wider Mediterranean area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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16 pages, 3197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Performance and Opportunity Cost of a Smart-Sensed Automated Irrigation System for Water-Saving Rice Cultivation in Temperate Australia

by Matthew Champness, Leigh Vial, Carlos Ballester and John Hornbuckle

Agriculture 2023, 13(4), 903; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture13040903 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2039

Abstract

Irrigated rice is the largest user of precious global water reserves. Adoption of water-saving irrigation practices is limited by the associated increased labor demand compared to flooded rice cultivation. Automated gravity surface irrigation systems have shown the potential to deliver significant labor savings in traditional flooded rice; however, widespread adoption does not seem apparent. Furthermore, previously designed systems have not been capable of irrigation control during both ponded and non-ponded periods. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of an automated irrigation system for rice with features not previously developed, provide direction for future systems and analyze the opportunity cost (the value of other on- or off-farm activities that could be conducted with that time) of time associated with automated irrigation. The automated irrigation system was found to successfully control 23–31 flush-irrigation events per bay per season in a 9-bay border-check aerobic rice field for 2 seasons. In addition, successful water control was achieved in a traditional drill-sown field with 4 flush irrigations followed by 15 weeks of permanent flooding. Labor savings of 82–88% during the flush-irrigation events and 57% during the ponding period were achieved with automation when compared to manual irrigation. However, the opportunity cost of the saved time was found to comprise the greatest benefit. Changing the analysis from using a flat “cash” cost of time to using opportunity cost of time reduced the payback period from seven to four years at the traditional ponded-rice site. In the more labor-intensive aerobic rice site, the payback period was reduced from three years to one year when accounting for the opportunity cost of time as opposed to only the direct costs. Whilst the payback period is site-dependent and cultivation method-dependent, these case studies demonstrate that automated gravity surface irrigation can enable novel water-saving practices in rice and provide substantial economic benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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14 pages, 3020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solid Removal across the Bed Depth in Media Filters for Drip Irrigation Systems

by Miquel Duran-Ros, Joan Pujol, Toni Pujol, Sílvia Cufí, Gerard Arbat, Francisco Ramírez de Cartagena and Jaume Puig-Bargués

Agriculture 2023, 13(2), 458; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture13020458 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1332

Abstract

Pressurized sand media filters are commonly used in drip irrigation systems to prevent emitter clogging. However, the performance of these filters may be improved with more information about the retention of solids at different bed depths under different filter operation conditions and irrigation water sources. In this study, experiments in a scaled sand media filter were conducted to clog the filter with two different filtration velocities (30 and 60 m h⁻¹) and two-particle types (inorganic from A4 coarse sand dust and organic from a reclaimed effluent). The suspended solids retained in slices of 5 mm (in the first 20 mm of the bed) and 20 mm (from 20 to 200 mm depth) thick were determined following the van Staden and Haarhoff (2011) procedure. The solids retained in each slice per mass of media were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the interaction between the filtration velocity, the bed depth, and the particle type. The solids retained in the first 5 mm of the bed were significantly higher than at other depths. Moreover, inorganic solids were retained more in upper slices than organic ones. Therefore, media depths may be adjusted depending on the irrigation water source to optimize media use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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18 pages, 1955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Irrigation Management and Water Quality on Soil and Sorghum bicolor Payenne Yield in Cape Verde

by María del Pino Palacios-Diaz, Juan Ramón Fernández-Vera, Jose Manuel Hernández-Moreno, Regla Amorós and Vanessa Mendoza-Grimón

Agriculture 2023, 13(1), 192; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture13010192 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

Treated water use for agriculture will promote sustainable irrigation development and food sovereignty. The aim of this study is to assess the feasibility of subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) compared to drip irrigation (DI) and of reclaimed water (RW) versus conventional groundwater (CW), to produce forage sustainably in a warm arid region. A sorghum experiment was conducted in a field on Santiago Island (Cape Verde). A forage yield of 200 t fresh matter·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹, irrigated by RW, was obtained. Considering Cape Verde regulations, it is possible to irrigate sorghum using a drip system and RW without adding fertilizers. Soil fertility (OM and Ntot) increased, while risk parameters (EC, nitrate, and Na) returned to their initial values after the rainy season. The best irrigation water use efficiency was obtained by RWSDI (200 L·kg⁻¹ DM) compared to RWDI, which needed 34% more water. According to the results, a high nitrate elimination rate in treatment plants might not be desirable if agricultural reuse is planned to irrigate high-N-demanding species. Establishing new salinity tolerance levels under reuse conditions with SDI, and irrigating in rainy months to promote the lixiviation of salts in arid regions are also necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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13 pages, 3735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Micro-Irrigation Systems in Date Palm Production and Quality: Implications for Sustainable Investment

by Hesham S. Ghazzawy, Abu Elnasr E. Sobaih and Hani A. Mansour

Agriculture 2022, 12(12), 2018; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture12122018 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1635

Abstract

This research examines the role of micro-irrigation systems, i.e., sprinkler and drip irrigation, on date palm production and quality in a semi-arid region. The field experiment was carried out for two successful seasons at a private farm, in the Al-Nubaria region of Egypt. The date palm was planted under pressurized irrigation (drip irrigation and mini-sprinkler irrigation) to investigate the effect of both irrigation systems and three water treatments (100, 80, and 60% from ETc) on the yield and quality of date palms. Results on the productivity of date palm yields showed that the yield of date palm under a drip-irrigation system with 80% of crop water demand was an equal match to the yield of the sprinkler-irrigated date palm with 100% of crop water demand. This reflects the high efficiency of the drip irrigation system compared to the sprinkler irrigation system in date palms, especially in the semi-arid region. The results showed a significant increase in productivity by increasing water applied from 60% up to 80 and 100%. Quality attributes of date palm (particularly, sucrose, purity, and extractable sugar %) have a rise with increasing water deficit. The results have numerous implications, especially for sustainable investment in date palms. Implications for three aspects of sustainable investment, economic, social, and environmental, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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22 pages, 13704 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improve the Constructive Design of a Furrow Diking Rotor Aimed at Increasing Water Consumption Efficiency in Sunflower Farming Systems

by Florin Nenciu, Marius Remus Oprescu and Sorin-Stefan Biris

Agriculture 2022, 12(6), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12060846 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2028

Abstract

Water is the primary limiting factor in dryland crop production, therefore emerging approaches for preserving rainwater to be more accessible to plants, for extended periods of time, can significantly improve agricultural system efficiency. Furrow diking, a method involving compartmentalizing micro-basins to increase infiltration and soil water storage is one of the most promising water conservation solutions, particularly for sloping terrain. Moreover, furrow diking is associated with water conservation practices and regenerative agriculture as adaptive to dryland crop production. The present research study aims at improving the process of building soil compartmentalized segments using furrow diking technology, by designing and testing optimal geometries for the active soil modeling component. Three new constructive designs of a furrow diking active subassembly were built and tested in comparison with the standard version. In accordance with the considered quality indicators, the most efficient constructive shape was the curved rotor blade due to the higher volume of managed soil and fewer soil losses. Furthermore, the technology applied on three non-irrigated sunflower experimental crops grown on sloping land showed very good effectiveness with respect to the studied climatic and pedological conditions in southern Romania. When compared with non-compartmentalized crops, the most efficient rotor geometry design increased seed production by 11–13%. Water storage efficiency contributed the most to the yield increase, with moisture retention from the root zone improving by an average of 20%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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14 pages, 2209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Assessment of Underdrain Designs for Granular Media Filters in Drip Irrigation Systems

by Joan Pujol, Francesc X. Espinach, Miquel Duran-Ros, Gerard Arbat, Toni Pujol, Francisco Ramírez de Cartagena and Jaume Puig-Bargués

Agriculture 2022, 12(6), 810; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture12060810 - 03 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

Irrigation is very important for global food production and, therefore, it is key to moving towards increasingly sustainable irrigation systems. However, the adoption of more efficient water-use techniques, such as drip irrigation, increases energy consumption. A large part of the efficiency of drip irrigation systems depends on the equipment used, such as filters. The environmental impact of three media filters (a prototype with a porous media underdrain and two commercial filters, with inserted domes and collector arms underdrains, respectively) with different bed heights, filtration rates, and medium materials was studied using the life cycle analysis (LCA). Under the operating conditions that minimize the impact, the inserted domes design has the lowest overall impact, achieving reductions of up to 432% and 18% in some impacts regarding the porous media and the collector arm, respectively. A porous media filter has a better energy performance, but its prototype status hinders it in the raw material, building, and end-of-life phases. Conversely, the arm collector has the worst environmental performance. This work shows that filter designs should prioritize solutions that allow for minimizing the energy consumption during their operation to increase its sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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16 pages, 3084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elimination of Clogging of a Biogas Slurry Drip Irrigation System Using the Optimal Acid and Chlorine Addition Mode

by Xuefeng Qiu, Jiandong Wang, Haitao Wang, Chuanjuan Wang, Yuechao Sun and Guangyong Li

Agriculture 2022, 12(6), 777; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture12060777 - 28 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1865

Abstract

As an emerging contaminant, the clogging substances of emitters in biogas slurry drip irrigation systems affect the efficient return and utilization of biogas slurry to the field to a great extent. This can be prevented using acid and chlorination as engineering measures. Through a hydraulic performance test and sampling detection and analysis, under the same acid addition conditions (pH = 5.5–6.0), three chlorine addition concentrations (0, 1–3, and 4–9 mg/L) and four chlorine addition cycles (6, 10, 14, and 20 days) were tested, aimed to clarify the influence of acid and chlorine addition parameters (chlorine adding cycle, chlorine adding concentration, etc.) on the anti-clogging performance of emitters in biogas slurry drip irrigation system. The results showed that compared with no acid and chlorination treatment (CK), only acid and a reasonable combination of acid and chlorination can significantly reduce the probability of serious and complete clogging of biogas slurry drip irrigation emitters, and they can stabilize the relative average flow of emitters by more than 75%. The measures of adding acid and chlorine change the distribution characteristics of clogging substances at the front and rear of the drip irrigation belt. Furthermore, they promote the migration of clogging substances to the rear of the drip irrigation belt, facilitating the clogging of emitters located thereat. The measures of acid addition and sequential addition of acid and chlorine significantly inhibit the growth of an extracellular polymer in the emitter, and the effect of inhibiting the increase in extracellular polymer concentrations is relatively poor when the acid addition period is excessively long or short. There exists a negative correlation between the extracellular polymer content in the emitter and the change in the emitter flow. Based on the obtained results, to ensure excellent anti-clogging performance of biogas slurry drip irrigation systems, for acid-only treatment measures, the acid dosing cycle is recommended to be 10 days. When acid and chlorination measures are implemented sequentially, the acid chlorination cycle is recommended to be 14 and 10 days when the chlorine concentration is 1–3 and 4–9 mg/L, respectively. This study has important scientific significance and practical value for the establishment of long-term operation management and protection technologies of large-scale biogas slurry drip irrigation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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14 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Possibilities of Using Groundwater for Crop Irrigation in the Context of Climate Change

by Ireneusz Cymes, Ewa Dragańska and Zbigniew Brodziński

Agriculture 2022, 12(6), 739; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture12060739 - 24 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1911

Abstract

The study analyzed the structure of water shortages in plant crops and the available groundwater resources that can be used to satisfy these needs. The research was carried out in Braniewo poviat, which can be considered representative of the conditions of Central and Eastern Europe. A clear upward trend in the temperature value was observed, which influenced the changes in the duration of thermal seasons and agricultural periods. It also increases the intensity of the evapotranspiration process, which results in the reduction of water resources. The presence of significant water shortages, especially in the cultivation of root crops, such as, for example, late potato or sugar beet, justifies the need to irrigate these plants. Due to unevenly distributed surface water resources, groundwater is used as a source of irrigation. It was found that in the case of many crops, the areas with the greatest water shortages were those with average or high abundance in available groundwater. When indicating the possibility of abstracting large amounts of groundwater for use in plant production in Braniewo poviat, one should consider the fact that, in the long term, their exploitation may cause negative environmental effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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32 pages, 15800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sprinkler Drip Infiltration Quality Prediction for Moisture Space Distribution Using RSAE-NPSO

by Zhongwei Liang, Tao Zou, Yupeng Zhang, Jinrui Xiao and Xiaochu Liu

Agriculture 2022, 12(5), 691; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture12050691 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1713

Abstract

Considering the high quality requirements related to agricultural production, the intelligent prediction of sprinkler drip infiltration quality (SDIQ) of the moisture space distribution in soil fields is an important issue in precision irrigation. The objective of this research is to adaptively predict an optimal data set of SDIQ indices using a robust prediction algorithm called the regulated sparse autoencoder–niche particle swarm optimization (RSAE-NPSO) system, so that the SDIQ indices of various irrigated layers of loam, sandy, chernozem, saline–alkali, and clay soils can be predicted and analyzed. This prediction procedure involves the following steps. First, the drip infiltration effectiveness of the moisture on specific irrigated soil layers is measured. Second, a complete set of SDIQ indices used for assessing the moisture space distribution is introduced. Third, an analytical framework based on the RSAE-NPSO algorithm is established. Fourth, the intelligent prediction of SDIQ indices using RSAE-NPSO computation is achieved. This research indicates that when the irrigation parameters include the sprinkling pressure (P_w) at 224.8 KPa, irrigation duration time (I_d) at 2.68 h, flow discharge amount (F_q) at 1682.5 L/h, solar radiation (S_r) at 17.2 MJ/m², average wind speed (A_w) at 1.18 m/s, average air temperature (A_t) at 22.8 °C, and average air relative humidity (A_h) at 72.8%, as well as the key variables of the irrigation environment, including the soil bulk density (S_b) at 1.68 g/cm³, soil porosity (S_p) at 68.7%, organic carbon ratio (O_c) at 63.5%, solute transportation coefficient (S_t) at 4.86 × 10⁻⁶, evapotranspiration rate (E_v) at 33.8 mm/h, soil saturated hydraulic conductivity rate (S_s) at 4.82 cm/s, soil salinity concentration (S_c) at 0.46%, saturated water content (S_w) at 0.36%, and wind direction W_d in the north–northwest direction (error tolerance = ±5%, the same as follows), an optimal data set of SDIQ indices can be ensured, as shown by the exponential entropy of the soil infiltration pressure (ESIP) at 566.58, probability of moisture diffusivity (PMD) at 96.258, probabilistic density of infiltration effectiveness (PDIE) at 98.224, modulus of surface radial runoff (MSRR) at 411.25, infiltration gradient vector (IGV) at [422.5,654.12], and normalized infiltration probabilistic coefficient (NIPC) at 95.442. The quality inspection of the SDIQ prediction process shows that a high agreement between the predicted and actual measured SDIQ indices is achieved. RSAE-NPSO has extraordinary predictive capability and enables much better performance than the other prediction methods in terms of accuracy, stability, and efficiency. This novel prediction method can be used to ensure the infiltration uniformity of the moisture space distribution in sprinkler drip irrigation. It facilitates productive SDIQ management for precision soil irrigation and agricultural crop production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Management of Agricultural Irrigation Systems and Technologies)

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