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Agriculture
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Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping
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Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping

A special issue of Agriculture (ISSN 2077-0472). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Product Quality and Safety".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2021) | Viewed by 49680

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Małgorzata Bieńkowska

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Division of Apiculture, Research Institute of Horticulture in Skierniewice, Kazimierska 2A, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
Interests: honeybees; Apis mellifera; beekeeping; apiculture; biodiversity and conservation; genetic diversity; bee breeding; Varroa destructor; instrumental insemination; hygienic behavior; environmental science
Dr. Anna Gajda

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Bee Diseases, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: honeybee; apis mellifera; bee pollinators; managed bees; wild bees; veterinary medicine; bee diseases; bee viruses; varroa destructor; nosemosis; nosema spp.; pollinator declines; honeybee colony losses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Beekeeping plays a key role in the development of rural areas, aids ecosystems with the pollination service and, at the same time, contributes to an increase in agricultural production yields.

However, the manner of beekeeping has changed from extensive to intensive and specialized, oriented towards economic profits from both bee products and pollination. Increasingly, endemic bee populations are replaced with bee subspecies that exhibit traits desired for production—“commercial” bees. Food competition is increasing, and with the high profitability of beekeeping production from monocultural forages, bees are not only faced with a scarcity of food, but their diet is also not diverse enough. In relation to climate change (which can result in the shortened and earlier blooming of some crucial forage plants), as well as the presence of many pathogens that threaten bee health, and the need for their control, often with chemical compounds that may reduce the resilience to pathogens, the immunity and vitality of these insects are significantly reduced and the quality of bee products decreases.

In consequence, since 2005, increased bee colony losses have been observed and, given the value of bees to ecosystems and their homeostasis, and also their invaluable pollination of many commercial crops, this phenomenon becomes a real threat to global agriculture and, by extension, the economy.

In this Special Issue, we aim to present a broad outlook on the problems and threats to modern beekeeping, as well as ways of tackling them.

Dr. Małgorzata Bieńkowska
Dr. Anna Gajda
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agriculture is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • bee breeding
  • beekeeping
  • pathogen resistance
  • bee nutrition
  • bee losses
  • climate change and pollinators
  • impaired bee immunity
  • Varroa management
  • bee products

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2774 KiB  
Article
Nosema Ceranae Interactions with Nosema apis and Black Queen Cell Virus
by Anna Maria Gajda, Ewa Danuta Mazur, Andrzej Marcin Bober and Michał Czopowicz
Agriculture 2021, 11(10), 963; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11100963 - 03 Oct 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2523
Abstract
Nosema ceranae is a relatively new pathogen of the honeybee (Apis mellifera) and the course of type C nosemosis (the disease that it causes) is not entirely known. In order to better understand the course and the consequences of this disease, [...] Read more.
Nosema ceranae is a relatively new pathogen of the honeybee (Apis mellifera) and the course of type C nosemosis (the disease that it causes) is not entirely known. In order to better understand the course and the consequences of this disease, laboratory experiments were performed. They aimed to compare the course of N. ceranae infection with the course of Nosema apis infection, taking its influence on the black queen cell virus (BQCV) into account. Determination of the quantity of N. ceranae and BQCV genetic material in laboratory tests was performed using real-time PCR. In mixed Nosema infections, N. ceranae “wins” the competition and manages to outnumber N. apis significantly. BQCV exacerbates the course of both A and C nosemoses, but the data shows that in the case of nosemosis C and this viral infection, the mortality rate was the highest from all examined groups. Obtained results show that N. ceranae is more pathogenic for A. mellifera than N. apis, and the course of type C nosemosis is much heavier, which results in the shortened life spans of bees, and in connection with BQCV it becomes even more dangerous to bees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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16 pages, 2986 KiB  
Article
The Buzz Changes within Time: Native Apis mellifera mellifera Honeybee Subspecies Less and Less Popular among Polish Beekeepers Since 1980
by Małgorzata Bieńkowska, Aleksandra Splitt, Paweł Węgrzynowicz and Robert Maciorowski
Agriculture 2021, 11(7), 652; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11070652 - 11 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1933
Abstract
Socio-cultural research might address anthropocentric reasons for honeybee (Apis mellifera) conservation. In some regions, particular honeybee subspecies are considered to be native; A. mellifera mellifera (“dark bee”) in the north-east and A. mellifera carnica in the Island Beskids in Poland. Additionally, [...] Read more.
Socio-cultural research might address anthropocentric reasons for honeybee (Apis mellifera) conservation. In some regions, particular honeybee subspecies are considered to be native; A. mellifera mellifera (“dark bee”) in the north-east and A. mellifera carnica in the Island Beskids in Poland. Additionally, A. mellifera caucasia (often incorrectly called A. mellifera caucasica) and Buckfast are reported across Poland. In order to verify the actual choice of beekeepers, a survey on honeybee subspecies kept in apiaries was conducted annually from 1980 to 2018. This is a way to verify if conservation management towards the dark bee influenced its maintenance at a sufficient level for their restoration. The analysis revealed that Polish beekeepers know what is “buzzing” in their hives, and the awareness of which subspecies/types of honeybee they maintain has grown through the years. Initially, they kept up to four different subspecies per apiary, but now most have only one (maximum of two). Currently, Polish apiaries approach a homogeneous share with the exclusive presence of A. mellifera carnica subspecies. The popularity of indigenous A. mellifera mellifera has declined over time and is low now. It seems that new solutions should be considered to increase the effectiveness of dark European bee conservation management efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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11 pages, 813 KiB  
Communication
Fuzzy Sensory Quality Certification in Intensive Organic Beekeeping
by Florin Marian Buhociu, Constanta Laura Augustin (Zugravu), Maria Magdalena Turek Rahoveanu, Adrian Turek Rahoveanu and Gheorghe Adrian Zugravu
Agriculture 2021, 11(7), 644; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11070644 - 09 Jul 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2275
Abstract
The current paper presents a fuzzy sensory quality certification of organic mint honey as a component of the strategy to promote intensive beekeeping. This sensory analysis is based on fuzzy logic that allows the processing of data represented by linguistic terms. For the [...] Read more.
The current paper presents a fuzzy sensory quality certification of organic mint honey as a component of the strategy to promote intensive beekeeping. This sensory analysis is based on fuzzy logic that allows the processing of data represented by linguistic terms. For the development of the fuzzy sensory analysis model of bee honey, we develop a MATLAB application, with the help of which we modeled the sensory perceptions in relation to the main quality characteristics of mint honey in relation to the other varieties of honey. The sensory quality index of each honey assortment is obtained by converting qualitative assessments through linguistic terms into a set of three numerical values on a sensory scale of assessment of results with five linguistic values: unsatisfactory, satisfactory, average, good, excellent. Indices of fuzzy sensory quality associated with honey varieties are certified using a blockchain model that is an information technology that offers the opportunity to develop local markets for organic bee products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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14 pages, 2206 KiB  
Article
Genetic Progress Achieved during 10 Years of Selective Breeding for Honeybee Traits of Interest to the Beekeeping Industry
by Ségolène Maucourt, Frédéric Fortin, Claude Robert and Pierre Giovenazzo
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 535; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11060535 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2710
Abstract
Genetic improvement programs have resulted in spectacular productivity gains for most animal species in recent years. The introduction of quantitative genetics and the use of statistical models have played a fundamental role in achieving these advances. For the honeybee (Apis mellifera), [...] Read more.
Genetic improvement programs have resulted in spectacular productivity gains for most animal species in recent years. The introduction of quantitative genetics and the use of statistical models have played a fundamental role in achieving these advances. For the honeybee (Apis mellifera), genetic improvement programs are still rare worldwide. Indeed, genetic and reproductive characteristics are more complex in honeybees than in other animal species, which presents additional challenges for access genetic selection. In recent years, advances in informatics have allowed statistical modelling of the honeybee, notably with the BLUP-animal model, and access to genetic selection for this species is possible now. The aim of this project was to present the genetic progress of several traits of interest to the Canadian beekeeping industry (hygienic behavior, honey production and spring development) achieved in our selection program since 2010. Our results show an improvement of 0.30% per year for hygienic behavior, 0.63 kg per year for honey production and 164 brood cells per year for spring development. These advances have opened a new era for our breeding program and sharing this superior genetic available to beekeepers will contribute to the sustainability and self-sufficiency of the beekeeping industry in Canada. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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11 pages, 1335 KiB  
Article
Can Colony Size of Honeybees (Apis mellifera) Be Used as Predictor for Colony Losses Due to Varroa destructor during Winter?
by Coby van Dooremalen and Frank van Langevelde
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 529; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11060529 - 07 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2373
Abstract
For more than three decades, honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera) have experienced high losses during winter and these losses are still continuing. It is crucial that beekeepers monitor their colonies closely and anticipate losses early enough to apply mitigating actions. We tested [...] Read more.
For more than three decades, honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera) have experienced high losses during winter and these losses are still continuing. It is crucial that beekeepers monitor their colonies closely and anticipate losses early enough to apply mitigating actions. We tested whether colony size can be used as early predictor for potential colony losses, in particular due to the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. V. destructor is one of the most important causes of these losses. Such an early predictor for potential V. destructor induced losses is especially relevant as measuring V. destructor load in colonies is difficult and cumbersome. Over three years, we monitored colonies with high and low V. destructor loads from July until March of the next year. We found that differences in colony size were only visible after November, even though we lost almost all colonies every winter in the group with a high V. destructor load. In the Northern hemisphere, November is considered to be too late for beekeepers to strengthen colonies in preparation for winter. We therefore argue that early warning signs for potential colony losses due to V. destructor are urgently needed to allow beekeepers to prevent winter losses. We discuss the role of precision apiculture in monitoring the health and productivity of beehive colonies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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13 pages, 1223 KiB  
Article
Bee Bread Production—A New Source of Income for Beekeeping Farms?
by Piotr Semkiw and Piotr Skubida
Agriculture 2021, 11(6), 468; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11060468 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3532
Abstract
Bee bread, i.e., floral pollen collected and partially processed by honey bees, is a source of many compounds beneficial for the human health. So far, the level of bee bread production in apiaries has been low due to many factors. However, development of [...] Read more.
Bee bread, i.e., floral pollen collected and partially processed by honey bees, is a source of many compounds beneficial for the human health. So far, the level of bee bread production in apiaries has been low due to many factors. However, development of such production may be significant as a new source of income for beekeepers. In spring 2015 a three-year study was started to determine bee bread production scale in honey bee colonies and assess the economic efficiency of such production. The experiment included 28 honey bee colonies each year; the colonies were divided into four groups. Each group tested different brood nest configuration or frames’ placement against the hive entrance for the amount of harvested bee bread. All the costs, including labor input, were related to the process of bee bread production. Depending on the group, it was possible to harvest from 0.51 to 1.23 kg of bee bread from one colony. The average production amounted to 0.7 kg, and the entire apiary gave 20 kg of bee bread annually. Annual costs connected to bee bread production amounted to 679.5 EUR, while the estimated income from sales amounted to 1110 EUR. Thus, the profit was 430.5 EUR, i.e., 21.5 EUR per 1 kg of harvested bee bread. The highest costs were connected to labor and they may potentially comprise a factor limiting the development of bee bread production in apiaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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11 pages, 2985 KiB  
Article
Successful Indoor Mass Storage of Honeybee Queens (Apis mellifera) during Winter
by Andrée Rousseau and Pierre Giovenazzo
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 402; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11050402 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4257
Abstract
The production of young, mated honeybee queens (Apis mellifera) is essential to replace dead queens or to start new colonies after wintering. Mass storage of mated honeybee queens during winter and their use the following spring is an interesting strategy that [...] Read more.
The production of young, mated honeybee queens (Apis mellifera) is essential to replace dead queens or to start new colonies after wintering. Mass storage of mated honeybee queens during winter and their use the following spring is an interesting strategy that could help fulfill this need. In this study, we investigated the survival, fertility, and fecundity of young, mated queens stored massively in queenless colonies from September to April (eight months). The queens were kept in environmentally controlled rooms at temperatures above and below cluster formation. The results show that indoor mass storage of mated queens can be achieved with success when queen banks are stored above cluster temperature. Significantly higher survival of queens was measured when wintering queen banks at 16 °C. Surviving queens wintered at different temperatures above or below cluster formation had similar fertility (sperm viability) and fecundity (egg laying and viable worker population). This study shows the potential of indoor overwintering of honeybee queen banks. The technique we describe could be applied on a commercial scale by beekeepers and queen breeders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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11 pages, 294 KiB  
Article
Direct Economic Impact Assessment of Winter Honeybee Colony Losses in Three European Countries
by Despina Popovska Stojanov, Lazo Dimitrov, Jiří Danihlík, Aleksandar Uzunov, Miroljub Golubovski, Sreten Andonov and Robert Brodschneider
Agriculture 2021, 11(5), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050398 - 27 Apr 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5214
Abstract
Honeybees are of great importance because of their role in pollination as well as for hive products. The population of managed colonies fluctuates over time, and recent monitoring reports show different levels of colony losses in many regions and countries. The cause of [...] Read more.
Honeybees are of great importance because of their role in pollination as well as for hive products. The population of managed colonies fluctuates over time, and recent monitoring reports show different levels of colony losses in many regions and countries. The cause of this kind of loss is a combination of various factors, such as the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, viruses, pesticides, management practices, climate change, and other stress factors. Having in mind that the economic aspect of honeybee colony losses has not been estimated, a pioneer effort was made for developing a methodology that estimates the economic impact of honeybee colony losses. Winter loss data was based on 2993 answers of the COLOSS standard questionnaire survey of honeybee winter colony losses for 2016/2017. In addition, market and financial data were used for each country. In a comparative analysis, an assessment on the economic impact of colony losses in Austria, Czechia, and Macedonia was made. The estimation considered the value of the colonies and the potential production losses of the lost colonies and of surviving but weak colonies. The direct economic impact of winter honeybee colony losses in 2016/2017 in Austria was estimated to be about 32 Mio €; in Czechia, 21 Mio €; and in Macedonia, 3 Mio €. Economic impact reflects the different value levels in the three countries, national colony populations, and the magnitude of colony losses. This study also suggests that economic losses are much higher than the subsidies, which underlines the economic importance of honeybees for the agricultural sector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
17 pages, 3252 KiB  
Article
Changes of Physicochemical Properties of Starch Syrups Recommended for Winter Feeding of Honeybees during Storage
by Teresa Szczęsna, Ewa Waś, Piotr Semkiw, Piotr Skubida, Katarzyna Jaśkiewicz and Monika Witek
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 374; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11040374 - 20 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2702
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the influence of storage temperature and time on physicochemical parameters of starch syrups recommended for the winter feeding of bee colonies. The studies included commercially available three starch syrups and an inverted saccharose syrup that [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to determine the influence of storage temperature and time on physicochemical parameters of starch syrups recommended for the winter feeding of bee colonies. The studies included commercially available three starch syrups and an inverted saccharose syrup that were stored at different temperatures: ca. 20 °C, 10–14 °C, and ca. 4 °C. Physicochemical parameters of fresh syrups (immediately after purchase) and syrups after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 months of storage at the abovementioned temperatures were measured. It was observed that the rate of unfavorable changes in chemical composition of starch syrups and the inverted saccharose syrup, mainly the changes in the 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content, depended on the type of a syrup and storage conditions (temperature, time). Properties of tested starch syrups intended for winter feeding of bees stored at ca. 20 °C maintained unchanged for up to 6 months, whereas the same syrups stored at lower temperatures (10–14 °C) maintained unchanged physicochemical parameters for about 12 months. In higher temperatures, the HMF content increased. To date, the influence of this compound on bees has not been thoroughly investigated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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14 pages, 291 KiB  
Article
Changes in the Physicochemical Properties of Starch Syrups after Processing by Honeybees
by Teresa Szczęsna, Ewa Waś, Piotr Semkiw, Piotr Skubida, Katarzyna Jaśkiewicz and Monika Witek
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 335; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11040335 - 08 Apr 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2034
Abstract
In recent time, it has become a common practice to use different kinds of starch syrups available on the market as a winter food for bees. However, the physicochemical composition of these syrups and their suitability for winter feeding of honeybee colonies are [...] Read more.
In recent time, it has become a common practice to use different kinds of starch syrups available on the market as a winter food for bees. However, the physicochemical composition of these syrups and their suitability for winter feeding of honeybee colonies are still insufficiently investigated. Therefore, our study analyzed the composition of three commercially available starch syrups, inverted saccharose syrup and homemade saccharose syrups, and tested winter stores processed by bees from these syrups. The following physicochemical parameters were investigated: water, sugars composition, maltodextrins (DP4–DP7) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content, pH and free acidity, as well as electrical conductivity. We found that the sugar composition of starch syrups ensures the suitable sugar composition of winter stores processed by the bees from these syrups. Winter stores compared to fresh syrups had a high content of total fructose and glucose (50 g/100 g), and some amounts of maltose (15 g/100 g), maltotriose (4 g/100 g), and maltodextrins (4 g/100 g). The small percentage of maltodextrins is responsible for maintaining the liquid consistency of the winter stores in honeybee combs during storage. Water content not exceeding 17.2% and adequate pH value (around 4.00) guarantee the stability of winter stores during storage in honeybee combs. A HMF content of up to 50 mg/kg was safe for bee colonies during wintering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
18 pages, 2253 KiB  
Article
Organic Beekeeping Practices in Romania: Status and Perspectives towards a Sustainable Development
by Cristina Bianca Pocol, Peter Šedík, Ioan Sebastian Brumă, Antonio Amuza and Aurica Chirsanova
Agriculture 2021, 11(4), 281; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11040281 - 25 Mar 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7722
Abstract
Romanian beekeeping faces a lot of challenges nowadays due to the problems related to climate change, the use of pesticides in agriculture, but also to the pandemic crisis. In this context, organic beekeeping represents an important alternative to traditional apicultural practices. The purpose [...] Read more.
Romanian beekeeping faces a lot of challenges nowadays due to the problems related to climate change, the use of pesticides in agriculture, but also to the pandemic crisis. In this context, organic beekeeping represents an important alternative to traditional apicultural practices. The purpose of the study was to present the current situation of organic beekeeping in Romania, but also to identify some aspects related to sustainability. The research methodology was based on secondary and primary data. An online survey was conducted in 2020 on a sample of 433 Romanian beekeepers. The main findings showed that the majority of participants were aware of organic principles and were familiar with the concept of sustainability in beekeeping. However, only a small percentage of beekeepers were certified in the organic system. The evaluation of the concept of sustainability showed that the most important factor for the surveyed beekeepers was the environmental aspect, followed by the economic and social components. The pandemic crisis has negatively impacted the beekeepers’ activities due to travel restrictions and the limited access to the apiaries. If, in economic terms, they were affected by the sales drop in the first months of the crisis, there were also some positive effects such as the increase in demand for health-related products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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17 pages, 12743 KiB  
Article
Mapping Priority Areas for Apiculture Development with the Use of Geographical Information Systems
by Simeon Marnasidis, Apostolos Kantartzis, Chrisovalantis Malesios, Fani Hatjina, Garyfallos Arabatzis and Efstathia Verikouki
Agriculture 2021, 11(2), 182; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11020182 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5632
Abstract
Supporting local and central authorities in decision-making processes pertaining to environmental planning requires the adoption of scientific methods and the submission of proposals that could be implemented in practice. Taking into consideration the dual role that honeybees play as honey producers and crop [...] Read more.
Supporting local and central authorities in decision-making processes pertaining to environmental planning requires the adoption of scientific methods and the submission of proposals that could be implemented in practice. Taking into consideration the dual role that honeybees play as honey producers and crop pollinators, the aim of the present study is to identify and utilize a number of indicators and subsequently develop priority thematic maps. Previous research has focused on the determination of, and, on certain occasions, on mapping, priority areas for apiculture development, based mainly on the needs of honeybees, without taking into consideration the pollination needs of crops that are cultivated in these areas. In addition, research so far has been carried out in specific spatial entities, in contrast to the current study, in which the areas to be comparatively assessed are pre-chosen based on their geographical boundaries. The information derived from this process is expected to help decision-makers in local and regional authorities to adopt measures for optimal land use and sound pollination practices in order to enhance apiculture development at a local scale. To achieve this target, the study incorporates literature about the attractiveness of crops and plants to pollinating honeybees as well as the pollination services provided by honeybees, in combination with detailed vegetative land cover data. The local communities of each municipality were comparatively evaluated, by introducing three indicators through numerical and spatial data analysis: Relative Attractiveness Index (RAI), Relative Dependence Index (RDI), and Relative Priority Index (RPI). Based on these indicators, attractiveness, dependence, and priority maps were created and explained in detail. We suggest that a number of improvement measures that will boost pollination or honey production or both should be taken by decision-makers, based on the correlations between the aforementioned indicators and the exanimated areas. In addition, dependence maps can constitute a powerful tool for raising awareness among both the public and the farmers about the value of honeybees in pollination, thus reinforcing bee protection efforts undertaken globally. Attractiveness maps that provide a thorough picture of the areas that are sources of pollen and nectar can serve as a general guide for the establishment of hives in areas with high potential for beekeeping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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Review

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14 pages, 513 KiB  
Review
Effects of Plant Protection Products on Biochemical Markers in Honey Bees
by Agnieszka Murawska, Paweł Migdał and Adam Roman
Agriculture 2021, 11(7), 648; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agriculture11070648 - 09 Jul 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3170
Abstract
Plant protection products (PPPs) are pesticides that protect crops and ornamental plants. PPPs include primarily insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Bees’ contact with PPPs can cause immediate death or, in sublethal dose, may affect their physiology and/or behavior. Understanding the effect of PPPs’ sublethal [...] Read more.
Plant protection products (PPPs) are pesticides that protect crops and ornamental plants. PPPs include primarily insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Bees’ contact with PPPs can cause immediate death or, in sublethal dose, may affect their physiology and/or behavior. Understanding the effect of PPPs’ sublethal doses is especially important. Contact with a sublethal dose of PPPs generally allows the bee to return to the hive, which may expose the whole colony to the harmful substance. Biochemical changes may affect colony condition, health, and performance. Most of the research on the biochemical effects of PPP in honey bees focuses on insecticides and among them neonicotinoids (especially imidacloprid). The vast majority of research is carried out on Apis mellifera workers. A small part of the research has been conducted on drones and queens. Pesticides, including fungicides and herbicides, may alter antioxidant defense, detoxification, gene expression, and immune response of the bee. They affect the drones’ semen quality and metabolic rate of the queen. In this review, the biochemical effect of PPP products in the honey bee was examined, with a focus on the effect on cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, glutathione transferases, and carboxylesterases, which take part in toxin metabolism or the detoxification process. PPPs effects on the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), proteases, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and phenoloxidase (PO) are also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Problems of Modern Beekeeping)
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