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Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties

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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 35852

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Antonios Chrysargyris

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Department of Agricultural Sciences, Biotechnology and Food Science, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol 3036, Cyprus
Interests: aromatic plants and vegetable cultivation; development of strategies for plant nutrition and response to abiotic stress; soil-less culture, substrates and hydroponics; postharvest storage and processing of medicinal and aromatic plants; essential oil analysis and biocidal activity; evaluation of natural products
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Helen D. Skaltsa

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Department of Pharmacognosy and Chemistry of Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, University of Athens, 15771 Athens, Greece
Interests: chemistry of natural products; analytical methods; NMR; GC-MS; terpenes (iridoids, sesquiterpene lactones, and triterpenes); phenolics (flavonoids, phenols, phenolic acids, and lignans); essential oils; ethnopharmacology; history of pharmacy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Maria Konstantopoulou

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Chemical Ecology and Natural Products Laboratory, Institute of Biosciences and Applications, National Centre of Scientific Research “Demokritos”, Athens, Greece
Interests: natural products; chemical ecology; semiochemicals; microbial toxins; IPM; insect attractants; pheromones; kairomones; natural metabolites formulation; slow release sytems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cultivation management is essential to balance the fundamental parameters for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) as biomass and the production of high-quality essential oils and extracts with remarkable properties.

With the world’s population increasing rapidly, the production of food will have to double, biodiversity will be eliminated, and water quantity and quality will be reduced. Moreover, there will be no new croplands to cultivate, and the ones already in use will be deteriorated through over/bad fertilization. Medicinal plants and their essential oils and other extracts comprise more than just a modern fad. Apart from being a source of food, many MAP species are used as non-food industrial products, pharmaceuticals, herbal health products, cosmetics, plant protection products, etc. For their industrialization, cultivations should be standardized in a way to produce material that exhibits repeatable attributes and components. This could be accomplished by defining the proper nutrient needs for each species along with proper cultivation practices. Research activities are needed to determine the needs of each crop, industrial or edible, in order to secure plant uniformity connected to the cultivation practice applied.

Τhis Special Issue will cover research aspects related to the cultivation practices of medicinal and aromatic plants (extensive and intensive cultivations, soil, alternative substrates, hydroponics, abiotic and biotic stress, etc.) and how they can affect the biomass production (fresh or dried), nutritional value, and biological properties (antioxidant, antibacterial, insecticidal, cytotoxic, repellent, attractant, etc.) of various medicinal plant extracts. Research on the effects on essential oil quality and quantity is also welcome.

Dr. Antonios Chrysargyris
Prof. Dr. Helen D. Skaltsa
Dr. Maria Konstantopoulou
Guest Editors

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

cultivation practice (conventional, organic, soil, hydroponic, soilless)
medicinal and aromatic plants
plant extract properties
essential oils
molecules and compounds
storage and quality of fresh/dried tissue
abiotic stress
biotic stress
environmental fingerprint

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 185 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Helen Skaltsa and Maria Konstantopoulou

Agronomy 2022, 12(12), 3108; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy12123108 - 08 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2007

Abstract

Cultivation management is essential to balance fundamental parameters for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) such as biomass and the production of high-quality essential oils and extracts, with remarkable properties [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

19 pages, 3594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A One-Step Grafting Methodology Can Adjust Stem Morphology and Increase THCA Yield in Medicinal Cannabis

by Sarah Jane Purdy, Amitha K. Hewavitharana, Razlin Azman Halimi, Nelson Joel Magner, Tyson James Peterswald, Amy Trebilco, Tobias Kretzschmar and Deborah Hailstones

Agronomy 2022, 12(4), 852; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy12040852 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 10500

Abstract

The standard two-step methods for grafting horticultural crops involve cultivating the rootstock for a period of time and then connecting the scion. Medicinal Cannabis differs from most annual horticultural crops because it is usually clonally propagated from cuttings. We developed a grafting methodology specifically for medicinal Cannabis, involving a single step, in which a freshly cut scion is grafted to a freshly cut donor stem that will become the rootstock. This study also aimed to uncover a potential role for roots in influencing cannabinoid content. Two varieties with desirable attributes but cultivation limitations were selected to act as scions. The first, “CBD1” was a high CBDA accumulating variety with low biomass yield, and the second, “THC2”, was a high yielding, high THCA accumulating line with inconsistent root development during cloning. Two candidate rootstocks, “THC9r” and “THC8r”, were identified; both were high THCA, low CBDA varieties. Biomass yields in the THC2 scions grafted to THC9 rootstocks (THC9r_2s) were 20% higher than in the non-grafted THC2 plants. In CBD1 grafted plants, the concentrations of CBDA and some minor cannabinoids were significantly different to non-grafted CBD1, but biomass yields were lower. There was a trend towards a higher concentration of THCA in THC9r_2s plants, and when combined with the increased biomass, yield of THCA was increased from 8 g Plant⁻¹ to 13 g Plant⁻¹. Our results present a new grafting method for medicinal Cannabis that improved yield in THC2 and required no additional cultivation time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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13 pages, 1177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insecticidal Effect of Pistacia lentiscus (Anacardiaceae) Metabolites against Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

by Ioanna Dasenaki, Petri-Christina Betsi, Dimitris Raptopoulos and Maria Konstantopoulou

Agronomy 2022, 12(4), 755; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy12040755 - 22 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1975

Abstract

The extensive use of synthetic insecticides in agriculture poses a great risk for human health and the ecosystem, and mandates the development of safer alternatives derived from natural products. In the present study, we assessed the larvicidal effect of Pistacia lentiscus fruits, leaves, and bark extracts and their components on larvae of a major vine pest, Lobesia botrana. Pistacia lentiscus is an evergreen shrub or small tree possessing significant medicinal value with numerous therapeutic uses since antiquity. Using petri dish residual exposure and topical application bioassays we demonstrated that the fruit extract of P. lentiscus and its metabolites were toxic on L. botrana larvae. Extracts from leaves and bark showed no effect. Βioassay-guided fractionation of P. lentiscus fruit hexane extract led to the identification of its constituents with insecticidal properties on L. botrana larvae. Specifically, we have identified that the main contributor to the bioactivity of the hexane extract of P. lentiscus fruits is its major fraction, PLF_He2 (76.25%). Furthermore, we have found that PLF_He2 is a mixture of triglycerides and that the fatty acids responsible for the observed toxicity are oleic and linoleic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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15 pages, 6434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accumulation Patterns of Six Pyrethrin Compounds across the Flower Developmental Stages—Comparative Analysis in Six Natural Dalmatian Pyrethrum Populations

by Martina Grdiša, Nina Jeran, Filip Varga, Tatjana Klepo, Tonka Ninčević and Zlatko Šatović

Agronomy 2022, 12(2), 252; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy12020252 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2481

Abstract

Pyrethrin is a specialized metabolite of Dalmatian pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch. Bip.), Asteraceae, known worldwide as an effective bioinsecticide. It consists of six active compounds: Pyrethrin I and II, cinerin I and II, and jasmolin I and II. Pyrethrin accumulates mainly in the flower heads and its content depends on numerous factors, such as the flower developmental stage. This study aims to investigate the accumulation patterns of six pyrethrin compounds in the flower heads of Dalmatian pyrethrum over the eight developmental stages (FS1 to FS8), and to make a comparison in six natural populations. Ultrasound assisted extraction was used to extract the pyrethrin, while qualitative and quantitative analysis was performed by High performance liquid chromatography. The accumulation patterns of different pyrethrin compounds were generally similar and also synchronous between different populations, while the pyrethrin I/pyrethrin II ratio showed irregular patterns. In all populations studied, the highest increase of all compounds was observed from FS1 to FS2. Their concentration continuously increased, reaching the highest values at FS4 stage (2–5 rows of open disc flowers), and generally decreased gradually towards FS6 or FS7 and then stagnated until the FS8 stage. Despite the very similar accumulation pattern of pyrethrin compounds in the different populations, the significant differences in their content suggest a different genetic background. Knowledge of the dynamics of pyrethrin compounds accumulation across flower development stages is valuable for determining the optimal harvest time of pyrethrum flower heads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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12 pages, 1706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of NaCl on Hydroponic Cultivation of Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth

by Rita Maggini, Stefano Benvenuti, Federico Leoni, Luca Incrocci and Alberto Pardossi

Agronomy 2021, 11(11), 2352; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11112352 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1668

Abstract

Wild edible plant species are often more tolerant to salinity than many crop plants. Considering the salinization of irrigation water that is progressively affecting the Mediterranean region and the market demand for new plant foods, the cultivation of wild edible species could represent a valid alternative to conventional vegetable crops. In this study, Reichardia picroides (L.) Roth, a widespread spontaneous herb of ethnobotanical tradition, was grown for four or six weeks under a greenhouse in a floating system for the production of baby leaves. In order to improve the nutraceutical quality of the tissues, the plants were exposed to the following NaCl concentrations in the nutrient solution: 1.7 (control), 25, 50, and 100 mM. The results showed that a 4-week growing period in a floating system with 50 mM NaCl in the nutrient solution increased the content of bioactive molecules without affecting the fresh yield. After six weeks of cultivation, despite a decrease in biomass production as compared with the control, the leaves of salt-treated plants contained higher levels of bioactive molecules along with lower amounts of nitrate ion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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19 pages, 2510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolomics Analysis Reveals Potential Mechanisms in Bupleurum L. (Apiaceae) Induced by Three Levels of Nitrogen Fertilization

by Jialin Sun, Weinan Li, Ye Zhang, Yun Guo, Zejia Duan, Zhonghua Tang and Ann Abozeid

Agronomy 2021, 11(11), 2291; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11112291 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1909

Abstract

Bupleurum (Apiaceae) is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory and infectious diseases. Although roots are the only used parts in China, other countries use the whole plant. The yield and quality of Bupleurum depend mainly on fertilizers, especially nitrogen. The current study aimed to assess the relationship between the nitrogen fertilization level and the quality and metabolomic response of different parts (flowers, main shoots, lateral shoots and roots) of Bupleurum to three nitrogen fertilization levels (control group: 0 kg·ha⁻¹; low-nitrogen group: 55 kg·ha⁻¹; high-nitrogen group: 110 kg·ha⁻¹). The results showed that a high nitrogen level increases Bupleurum yield and quality parameters only in aerial parts, especially flowers, but has no significant effect on roots. The HPLC method was exploited for simultaneous quantification of three saikosaponins (A, C and D), which are the main bioactive components in the plant. It was found that the total content of saikosaponins decreased with high nitrogen fertilization in roots but significantly increased in flowers. Moreover, nitrogen fertilizer promoted the content of saikosaponin A but inhibited saikosaponins C and saikosaponins D in most parts of the plant. To study the response of primary metabolites, we adopted gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC−MS) analysis; 84 metabolites were identified that were mostly up-regulated with a high nitrogen level in flowers but down-regulated in roots. Four differential metabolites—D-fructose, lactose, ether and glycerol—were recognized as key metabolites in Bupleurum under nitrogen fertilization. Meanwhile, The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment results explained that the impact of nitrogen fertilization on Bupleurum was attributed to the C-metabolism, N-metabolism, and lipids metabolism. This research put forward new insights into potential mechanisms and the relationship between the quality and yield of Bupleurum and nitrogen fertilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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24 pages, 1127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation of Antioxidant Capacity, Phenols, Minerals and Essential Oil Components of Sage, Spearmint and Sideritis Plants Grown at Different Altitudes

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Efstathios Evangelides and Nikolaos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2021, 11(9), 1766; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11091766 - 02 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2098

Abstract

Medicinal and aromatic plants are well appreciated for their antioxidant and biocidal activities, while great variation on these activities can be related to the species, environmental conditions and harvesting period. In the present study, the seasonal variation of the antioxidant activity, mineral content, yield and chemical composition of the essential oils (EOs) of sage (Salvia officinalis L.), sideritis (Sideritis perfoliata L. subsp. perfoliata) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) were tested under two different environmental conditions, each with a different altitude (namely mountainous and plain). Season affected total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity with increased values during winter and lower values during summer period. In summer, plants accumulated more Fe and had higher EO yield, while P and Na were accumulated more in winter. Altitude had a lesser effect on antioxidant capacity of the plants; however, increased minerals (N, K, Na and Ca) accumulation was found in plain areas. Sage plants had the highest antioxidant capacity, Zn content and EO yield. Sideritis had increased Fe content and spearmint plants revealed high N, Na and Mg levels. Furthermore, altitude and season had an impact on the content of main EOs components in all species. FRAP and ABTS were variably correlated with total phenols and minerals, depending on the species, season and altitude. In few cases, antioxidant activity was found to be inversely linked to some EO components (e.g., α-thujone in sage). Finally, the antioxidant content, minerals and EO yield and composition of the examined MAPs were all altered by season and altitude. These findings can be utilized to implement sage, sideritis and spearmint farming in specific ecosystems, determining the season and areas for harvesting the plants, in order to produce high-value products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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9 pages, 2739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

NMR Fingerprint Comparison of Cultivated Sideritis spp. from Cyprus

by Ekaterina-Michaela Tomou, Krystalia Lytra, Antonios Chrysargyris, Nikolaos Tzortzakis and Helen Skaltsa

Agronomy 2021, 11(8), 1503; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11081503 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) play an essential role in global health systems, since more than 80% of population use natural products in primary healthcare. Given that the global use of herbal medicines is exponentially increasing, as well as many MAPs products are introduced into the market, many cultivation practices are applied to produce high quality and standardized plant raw materials. Thus, the present study focuses on the chemical fingerprints of two cultivated Sideritis species. In Cyprus, Sideritis cypria Post and S. perfoliata L. subsp. perfoliata are widely used in traditional medicine. To date, there is no research work presenting the comparative chemical profiling between the aforesaid species using NMR methods. In this study, 1D and 2D NMR experiments were used to compare the chemical fingerprints of these species originated from conventional cultivation practices. Iridoids (ajugol, monomelittoside, and melittoside) and one flavone (4′-methyl-isoscutellarein 7-O-[6‴-O-acetyl]-β-D-allosyl(1→2)glucoside) were present in the infusion of S. perfoliata subsp. perfoliata. The phenylethanoid glycoside, acteoside, was detected in both samples. The phytochemical profiles of these cultivated species were similar to those of Sideritis species, indicating the positive impact of cultivation practices in MAPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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19 pages, 1240 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantitative Determination of the Effects of He–Ne Laser Irradiation on Seed Thermodynamics, Germination Attributes and Metabolites of Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) in Relation with the Activities of Germination Enzymes

by Rashida Perveen, Xiukang Wang, Yasir Jamil, Qasim Ali, Shafaqat Ali, Muhammad Qaisar Zakaria, Muhammad Afzaal, Rehan Ahmed Kasana, Muhammad Hamzah Saleem and Sajid Fiaz

Agronomy 2021, 11(7), 1411; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11071411 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2759

Abstract

The present investigation was undertaken to assess the effects of different doses (100, 300, and 500 mJ) of low power He–Ne laser (632.8 nm) irradiation on seed germination and thermodynamics attributes and activities of potential germinating enzymes in relation with changes in seed metabolites. He–Ne laser seed irradiation increased the amylase (Amy), protease (Pro) and glucosidase (Gluco) activities, with a significant improvement in seed thermodynamics and seed germination attributes. A fast increase was found in free fatty acids (FFA), free amino acids (FAA), chlorophyll (Chl), carotenoids (Car), total soluble sugars (TSS) and reducing sugars (RS) in laser treated seeds in parallel with fast decline in seed oil contents and total soluble proteins (TSP). Significant positive correlations were recorded in laser-induced enhanced seed energy levels, germination, activities of germination enzymes with levels of FAA, FFA, Chl, TSS and RS, but a negative correlation with the levels of TSP and oil. In conclusion, the seed treatment with 100 and 300 mJ He–Ne laser was more effective to improve the seed germination potential associated with an improvement in seed energy levels due to increased activities of germination enzymes due to the speedy breakdown of seed reserves to simple metabolites as building blocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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16 pages, 2851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Hydroponically Cultivated Geranium and Common Verbena under Salinity and High Electrical Conductivity Levels

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Spyridon A. Petropoulos, Dejan Prvulovic and Nikolaos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2021, 11(6), 1237; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11061237 - 18 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2849

Abstract

Abiotic factors in nutrient solutions (NSs), such as salinity and high electrical conductivity (EC), may adversely alter plant growth and crop performance. However, there are medicinal/aromatic plants which can not only withstand these adverse conditions, but which can also increase their productivity or even enhance their quality in such conditions. As fresh water sources suitable for irrigation are becoming more and more limited, the use of low-quality water sources and hydroponic growing systems have been suggested as the main alternatives. Towards that direction, this study aims to evaluate the effect of high EC levels in NSs on geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér.) and common verbena (Verbena officinallis L.) plants cultivated in a soilless (perlite) hydroponics system. Plants were irrigated with a full nutrient solution of EC 2.1 dS m⁻¹ and pH 5.8 until they reached a uniform size. Then, three treatments were applied, namely: (a) a control treatment with an EC of 2.1 dS m⁻¹ in the NS, (b) a high-salinity NS created by adding 75 mM of NaCl (EC under 8.5 dS m⁻¹) and (c) a concentrated NS with an EC of 8.5 dS m⁻¹. In pelargonium, high salinity decreased the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents; antioxidant capacity; N, K, Mg and P content; as well as chlorophyll fluorescence, compared to the control treatment. On the other hand, increased salinity levels increased the Na and Ca content and stomatal resistance. In common verbena, salinity decreased total phenolic content and chlorophyll fluorescence but increased total flavonoid content; antioxidants; leaf K, P, Na, Cu and Zn content; and stomatal resistance, compared to the control. In both species, high EC did not affect polyphenols, flavonoids or antioxidants, whereas it increased stomatal resistance and nutrient accumulation in the leaves, and decreased chlorophyll fluorescence compared to the control treatment. Damage indices, indicated by lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide production and the elevation of enzymes’ antioxidant activities, were evidenced in both saline- and high-EC-treated plants. In conclusion, despite having the same EC levels in the nutrient solution, it seems that ionic stress caused by high mineral concentrations in the nutrient solution had less severe effects on the tested plants than the relevant osmotic stress caused by high salinity due to the addition of NaCl in the nutrient solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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19 pages, 1129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Cultivation and Deficit Irrigation Practices to Improve Chemical and Biological Activity of Mentha spicata Plants

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Eleni Koutsoumpeli, Panayiota Xylia, Anastasia Fytrou, Maria Konstantopoulou and Nikolaos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 599; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11030599 - 22 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2685

Abstract

Intensive crop production and irrational use of fertilizers and agrochemicals have questionable effects on the quality of products and the sustainable use of water for agricultural purposes. Organic cultivation and/or deficit irrigation are, among others, well appreciated practices for a sustainable crop production system. In the present study, spearmint plants (Mentha spicata L.) were grown in different cultivation schemes (conventional versus organic cultivation, full versus deficit irrigation), and effects on the plant physiological and biochemical attributes were examined in two harvesting periods. Deficit irrigation decreased plant growth, but increased total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity of the plants at the second harvest. Spearmint nutrient accumulation was affected by the examined cultivation practices; nitrogen was decreased in organic cultivation, potassium and sodium were elevated at full-irrigated plants, while magnesium, phosphorus, and copper levels were higher at the deficit-irrigated plants. However, conventional/full-irrigated plants had increased height and fresh biomass at the first harvest. Essential oil content decreased at the second harvest in organic and/or deficit treated plants. Additionally, deficit irrigation affected plant growth and delayed the formation of carvone from limonene. The essential oils were further evaluated with regard to their bioactivity on a major vineyard pest Lobesia botrana. Volatile compounds from all essential oils elicited strong electroantennographic responses on female insects antennae, highlighting the role of carvone, which is the major constituent (~70%) in all the tested essential oils. M. spicata essential oils also exhibited larvicidal activity on L. botrana, suggesting the potential of their incorporation in integrated pest management systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs): The Connection between Cultivation Practices and Biological Properties)

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