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Agronomy
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Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues
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Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues

A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2021) | Viewed by 59328

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Carlos Martín

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2317 Hamar, Norway
2. Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
Interests: lignocellulosic materials; pretreatment; enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose; biorefineries; biochemical conversion of lignocellulose; cellulosic ethanol; biofuels
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The expected depletion of fossil resources is a major challenge requiring the promotion of alternative feedstocks to enhance energy and material security. Crop residues are widespread lignocellulosic materials with high potential as feedstocks for producing biofuels and chemicals via sugar–platform processes, in which polysaccharides are hydrolyzed to sugars for further conversion through microbial, enzymatic or chemical processing. Enzymatic saccharification of cellulose is a selective approach for deconstructing biomass, but it is hindered by the inherent recalcitrance of lignocellulosic feedstocks. By implementing pretreatment, the barriers causing recalcitrance are removed or weakened in such a way that the feedstock turns amenable for enzymatic saccharification. Lignocellulose pretreatment is still an open topic, since most of the existing methods are far from being mature for implementation in commercial-scale biorefineries. Furthermore, pretreatment effectiveness is feedstock-dependent, and new research is required to develop efficient methods for different materials. This Special Issue is devoted to summarizing the latest advances in pretreatment and bioconversion of crop residues. Contributions concerning novel pretreatment and bioconversion approaches and methods applicable to agricultural, agro-industrial, and food industry residues are especially welcome.

Dr. Carlos Martín
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • pretreatment
  • bioconversion
  • enzymatic hydrolysis
  • lignocellulosic materials
  • crop residues

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 223 KiB  
Editorial
Pretreatment of Crop Residues for Bioconversion
by Carlos Martín
Agronomy 2021, 11(5), 924; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11050924 - 08 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2055
Abstract
Decreasing the dependence on fossil resources as raw materials for the production of fuels, platform chemicals, and commodities is an imperative requirement of today’s industry and society in order to alleviate the threats related to climate change [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

24 pages, 2043 KiB  
Article
Bioconversion Process of Barley Crop Residues into Biogas—Energetic-Environmental Potential in Spain
by Carlos Morales-Polo, María del Mar Cledera-Castro, Marta Revuelta-Aramburu and Katia Hueso-Kortekaas
Agronomy 2021, 11(4), 640; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11040640 - 26 Mar 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2957
Abstract
Barley fields reach 1.7 million hectares in Spain, of which 320,000 are used to produce malt, generating 450,000 tons of crop residue from barley intended for malt production. One way to treat this waste in an environmentally sound, energy-sustainable and economically cost-effective manner [...] Read more.
Barley fields reach 1.7 million hectares in Spain, of which 320,000 are used to produce malt, generating 450,000 tons of crop residue from barley intended for malt production. One way to treat this waste in an environmentally sound, energy-sustainable and economically cost-effective manner is anaerobic digestion. The biogas generated can be used as fuel and as a renewable source of energy (providing a solution to the energy supply problem from an environmental point of view). It has been shown that, when treated along with sludge from a Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor, the crop malt residue produces about 1604 NmL of biogas per 100 g; with a content in methane of 27.486%. The development of the process has been studied with a novel indicator, hydrogen generation, and it has been determined that the process takes place in two phases. It has been demonstrated that this solution is beginning to be energy-efficient and therefore to produce energy for external uses in regions that have at least 6000 hectares of planted barley. At best, it can be considered, in a given region, the equivalent of a 115 MW power plant. It could supply energy to 10 thousand homes per year. Therefore, it is considered an energy-efficient solution that com-plies with the Sustainable Development Goals #1, #7, #10, #12 and #13. It guarantees access to energy in isolated areas or with supply problems, and results in a 55.4% reduction in emissions of equivalent-CO2 (which equals 38,060 tons of equivalent-CO2 in Spain). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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20 pages, 1519 KiB  
Article
Hydrothermal Pretreatment of Wheat Straw: Effects of Temperature and Acidity on Byproduct Formation and Inhibition of Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Ethanolic Fermentation
by Dimitrios Ilanidis, Stefan Stagge, Leif J. Jönsson and Carlos Martín
Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030487 - 05 Mar 2021
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3225
Abstract
Biochemical conversion of wheat straw was investigated using hydrothermal pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and microbial fermentation. Pretreatment conditions that were compared included autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 160, 175, 190, and 205 °C and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 160 and 190 °C. The effects of [...] Read more.
Biochemical conversion of wheat straw was investigated using hydrothermal pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and microbial fermentation. Pretreatment conditions that were compared included autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 160, 175, 190, and 205 °C and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 160 and 190 °C. The effects of using different pretreatment conditions were investigated with regard to (i) chemical composition and enzymatic digestibility of pretreated solids, (ii) carbohydrate composition of pretreatment liquids, (iii) inhibitory byproducts in pretreatment liquids, (iv) furfural in condensates, and (v) fermentability using yeast. The methods used included two-step analytical acid hydrolysis combined with high-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC), HPLC, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS), and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). Lignin recoveries in the range of 108–119% for autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 205 °C and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment were attributed to pseudolignin formation. Xylose concentration in the pretreatment liquid increased with temperature up to 190 °C and then decreased. Enzymatic digestibility was correlated with the removal of hemicelluloses, which was almost quantitative for the autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 205 °C. Except for the pretreatment liquid from the autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 205 °C, the inhibitory effects on Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast were low. The highest combined yield of glucose and xylose was achieved for autocatalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment at 190 °C and the subsequent enzymatic saccharification that resulted in approximately 480 kg/ton (dry weight) raw wheat straw. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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18 pages, 1453 KiB  
Article
Optimized Bioconversion of Xylose Derived from Pre-Treated Crop Residues into Xylitol by Using Candida boidinii
by Soma Bedő, Anikó Fehér, Panwana Khunnonkwao, Kaemwich Jantama and Csaba Fehér
Agronomy 2021, 11(1), 79; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy11010079 - 01 Jan 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2657
Abstract
Crop residues can serve as low-cost feedstocks for microbial production of xylitol, which offers many advantages over the commonly used chemical process. However, enhancing the efficiency of xylitol fermentation is still a barrier to industrial implementation. In this study, the effects of oxygen [...] Read more.
Crop residues can serve as low-cost feedstocks for microbial production of xylitol, which offers many advantages over the commonly used chemical process. However, enhancing the efficiency of xylitol fermentation is still a barrier to industrial implementation. In this study, the effects of oxygen transfer rate (OTR) (1.1, 2.1, 3.1 mmol O2/(L × h)) and initial xylose concentration (30, 55, 80 g/L) on xylitol production of Candida boidinii NCAIM Y.01308 on xylose medium were investigated and optimised by response surface methodology, and xylitol fermentations were performed on xylose-rich hydrolysates of wheat bran and rice straw. High values of maximum xylitol yields (58–63%) were achieved at low initial xylose concentration (20–30 g/L) and OTR values (1.1–1.5 mmol O2/(L × h)). The highest value for maximum xylitol productivity (0.96 g/(L × h)) was predicted at 71 g/L initial xylose and 2.7 mmol O2/(L × h) OTR. Maximum xylitol yield and productivity obtained on wheat bran hydrolysate were 60% and 0.58 g/(L × h), respectively. On detoxified and supplemented hydrolysate of rice straw, maximum xylitol yield and productivity of 30% and 0.19 g/(L × h) were achieved. This study revealed the terms affecting the xylitol production by C. boidinii and provided validated models to predict the achievable xylitol yields and productivities under different conditions. Efficient pre-treatments for xylose-rich hydrolysates from rice straw and wheat bran were selected. Fermentation using wheat bran hydrolysate and C. boidinii under optimized condition is proved as a promising method for biotechnological xylitol production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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11 pages, 264 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of the Convertibility of Agricultural Residues and Other Cellulose-Containing Materials in Hydrolysis with Penicillium verruculosum Cellulase Complex
by Dmitrii O. Osipov, Gleb S. Dotsenko, Olga A. Sinitsyna, Elena G. Kondratieva, Ivan N. Zorov, Igor A. Shashkov, Aidar D. Satrutdinov and Arkady P. Sinitsyn
Agronomy 2020, 10(11), 1712; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10111712 - 04 Nov 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1808
Abstract
Non-edible cellulose-containing biomass is a promising and abundant feedstock for simple sugar production. This study presents the results of different cellulose-containing materials (CCM) hydrolysis experiments with P. verruculosum enzyme complexes in laboratory conditions. Among the non-pretreated substrates, only a few had a relatively [...] Read more.
Non-edible cellulose-containing biomass is a promising and abundant feedstock for simple sugar production. This study presents the results of different cellulose-containing materials (CCM) hydrolysis experiments with P. verruculosum enzyme complexes in laboratory conditions. Among the non-pretreated substrates, only a few had a relatively high convertibility—soy bean husks (31%) and sugar beat pulp (20%)—while wheat straw, oat husks, sunflower peals, and corn stalks had a low convertibility of 3% to 12%. This indicates that a major part of CCM needs pretreatment. Steam-exploded (with Ca(OH)2) soy bean and oat husks (76% and 58%), fine ball-milled aspen wood and nitric acid-pretreated aspen wood (62% and 78%), and steam-exploded (with sulfuric acid) corn stalks (55%) had a high convertibility. Woody biomass pretreated with pulp and paper mills also had a high convertibility (56–78%)—e.g., never dried kraft hardwood and softwood pulp (both bleached and unbleached). These results demonstrate that effective cellulose-containing material processing into simple sugars is possible. Simple sugars derived from CCM using P. verruculosum preparation are a promising feedstock for the microbiological production of biofuels (bioethanol and biobutanol), aminoacids, and organic acids (e.g., lactic acid for polylactic acid production). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
14 pages, 596 KiB  
Article
Development of Pretreatment Strategies for the Fractionation of Hazelnut Shells in the Scope of Biorefinery
by Laura López, Sandra Rivas, Andrés Moure, Carlos Vila and Juan Carlos Parajó
Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1568; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10101568 - 14 Oct 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2072
Abstract
Hazelnut shells are an important waste from the hazelnut processing industry that could be valorized in a multi-product biorefinery. Individual or combined pretreatments may be integrated in processes enabling the integral fractionation of biomass. In this study, fractionation methods based on alkaline, alkaline-organosolv, [...] Read more.
Hazelnut shells are an important waste from the hazelnut processing industry that could be valorized in a multi-product biorefinery. Individual or combined pretreatments may be integrated in processes enabling the integral fractionation of biomass. In this study, fractionation methods based on alkaline, alkaline-organosolv, organosolv, or acid-catalyzed organosolv treatments were applied to raw or autohydrolyzed hazelnut shells. A comparative analysis of results confirmed that the highest lignin removal was achieved with the acid-catalyzed organosolv delignification, which also allowed limited cellulose losses. When this treatment was applied to raw hazelnut shells, 65.3% of the lignin was removed, valuable hemicellulose-derived products were obtained, and the cellulose content of the processed solids increased up to 54%. Autohydrolysis of hazelnut shells resulted in the partial solubilization of hemicelluloses (mainly in the form of soluble oligosaccharides). Consecutive stages of autohydrolysis and acid-catalyzed organosolv delignification resulted in 47.9% lignin removal, yielding solids of increased cellulose content (55.4%) and very low content of residual hemicelluloses. The suitability of selected delignified and autohydrolyzed-delignified hazelnut shells as substrates for enzymatic hydrolysis was assessed in additional experiments. The most susceptible substrates (from acid-catalyzed organosolv treatments) reached 74.2% cellulose conversion into glucose, with a concentration of 28.52 g glucose/L. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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14 pages, 2590 KiB  
Article
Techno-Economic Study of Castor Oil Crop Biorefinery: Production of Biodiesel without Fossil-Based Methanol and Lignoethanol Improved by Alkali Pretreatment
by Vajiheh Rahimi, Marzieh Shafiei and Keikhosro Karimi
Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1538; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10101538 - 10 Oct 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5305
Abstract
Castor, a non-edible oil crop that flourishes even under extreme cultivation conditions, can be cultivated in wastewater with a lower cultivation cost than similar plants, e.g., rapeseed and soybean. This plant, containing seeds and lignocellulosic residues, has a promising perspective for biofuel production. [...] Read more.
Castor, a non-edible oil crop that flourishes even under extreme cultivation conditions, can be cultivated in wastewater with a lower cultivation cost than similar plants, e.g., rapeseed and soybean. This plant, containing seeds and lignocellulosic residues, has a promising perspective for biofuel production. The oil extracted from the seeds is inexpensive and can be efficiently converted to biodiesel, while the lignocellulosic parts are suitable for ethanol production after pretreatment with NaOH. Biodiesel typically produced from the fossil-based methanol; however, it can also be produced from the ethanol. In this study, ethanol used for biodiesel production is produced from the lignocellulosic residues (scenario 1), which are more sustainable and environmentally friendly; the process was compared with that of the methanol (scenario 2). In this study, techno-economic analyses were used to compare the technical and economic aspects of producing biodiesel from methanol and the produced ethanol. Simulations of the processes were carried out by Aspen plus software, and economic studies were conducted by Aspen Economic Analyzer. The prices of produced ethanol as a byproduct in scenarios 1 and 2 were USD 0.701 and 0.693 per liter, respectively, which are greater than that of gasoline. The prices of biodiesel produced as a primary product for scenarios 1 and 2 are USD 0.410 and 0.323/L, lower than the price of diesel in the Middle East region. The profitability indices for scenarios 1 and 2 are 1.29 and 1.41, respectively. Therefore, despite environmental benefits, the biorefinery based on producing biodiesel from methanol is more economically feasible than that produced from ethanol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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11 pages, 1093 KiB  
Article
Effect of Novel Penicillium verruculosum Enzyme Preparations on the Saccharification of Acid- and Alkali-Pretreated Agro-Industrial Residues
by Susan G. Karp, Dmitrii O. Osipov, Margarita V. Semenova, Alexandra M. Rozhkova, Ivan N. Zorov, Olga A. Sinitsyna, Carlos R. Soccol and Arkady P. Sinitsyn
Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1348; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10091348 - 07 Sep 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2260
Abstract
This study aimed at evaluating different enzyme combinations in the saccharification of sugarcane bagasse (SCB), soybean husks (SBH) and oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) submitted to mild acid and alkaline pretreatments. Enzyme pools were represented by B1 host (crude cellulase/xylanase complexes of [...] Read more.
This study aimed at evaluating different enzyme combinations in the saccharification of sugarcane bagasse (SCB), soybean husks (SBH) and oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) submitted to mild acid and alkaline pretreatments. Enzyme pools were represented by B1 host (crude cellulase/xylanase complexes of Penicillium verruculosum); B1-XylA (Penicillium canescens xylanase A expressed in P. verruculosum B1 host strain); and F10 (Aspergillus niger β-glucosidase expressed in B1 host strain). Enzyme loading was 10 mg protein/g dry substrate and 40 U/g of β-glucosidase (F10) activity. SCB was efficiently hydrolyzed by B1 host after alkaline pretreatment, yielding glucose and reducing sugars at 71 g/L or 65 g/100 g of dry pretreated substrate and 91 g/L or 83 g/100 g, respectively. B1 host performed better also for EFB, regardless of the pretreatment method, but yields were lower (glucose 27–30 g/L, 25–27 g/100 g; reducing sugars 37–42 g/L, 34–38 g/100 g). SBH was efficiently saccharified by the combination of B1 host and B1-XylA, yielding similar concentrations of reducing sugars for both pretreatments (92–96 g/L, 84–87 g/100 g); glucose recovery, however, was higher with alkaline pretreatment (81 g/L, 74 g/100 g). Glucose and reducing sugar yields from initial substrate mass were 42% and 54% for SCB, 36% and 42–47% for SBH and 16–18% and 21–26% for EFB, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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13 pages, 2942 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Alkaline Pretreatment on Agricultural Biomasses (Corn Cob and Sweet Sorghum Bagasse) and Their Hydrolysis by a Termite-Derived Enzyme Cocktail
by Mpho. S. Mafa, Samkelo Malgas, Abhishek Bhattacharya, Konanani Rashamuse and Brett I. Pletschke
Agronomy 2020, 10(8), 1211; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10081211 - 18 Aug 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4779
Abstract
Sweet sorghum bagasse (SSB) and corncob (CC) have been identified as promising feedstocks for the production of second-generation biofuels and other value-added chemicals. In this study, lime (Ca(OH)2) and NaOH pretreatment efficacy for decreasing recalcitrance from SSB and CC was investigated, [...] Read more.
Sweet sorghum bagasse (SSB) and corncob (CC) have been identified as promising feedstocks for the production of second-generation biofuels and other value-added chemicals. In this study, lime (Ca(OH)2) and NaOH pretreatment efficacy for decreasing recalcitrance from SSB and CC was investigated, and subsequently, the pretreated biomass was subjected to the hydrolytic action of an in-house formulated holocellulolytic enzyme cocktail (HEC-H). Compositional analysis revealed that SSB contained 29.34% lignin, 17.75% cellulose and 16.28% hemicellulose, while CC consisted of 22.51% lignin, 23.58% cellulose and 33.34% hemicellulose. Alkaline pretreatment was more effective in pretreating CC biomass compared to the SSB biomass. Both Ca(OH)2 and NaOH pretreatment removed lignin from the CC biomass, while only NaOH removed lignin from the SSB biomass. Biomass compositional analysis revealed that these agricultural feedstocks differed in their chemical composition because the CC biomass contained mainly hemicellulose (33–35%), while SSB biomass consisted mainly of cellulose (17–24%). The alkaline pretreated SSB and CC samples were subjected to the hydrolytic action of the holocellulolytic enzyme cocktail, formulated with termite derived multifunctional enzymes (referred to as MFE-5E, MFE-5H and MFE-45) and exoglucanase (Exg-D). The HEC-H hydrolysed NaOH pretreated SSB and CC more effectively than Ca(OH)2 pretreated feedstocks, revealing that NaOH was a more effective pretreatment. In conclusion, the HEC-H cocktail efficiently hydrolysed alkaline pretreated agricultural feedstocks, particularly those which are hemicellulose- and amorphous cellulose-rich, such as CC, making it attractive for use in the bioconversion process in the biorefinery industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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18 pages, 3446 KiB  
Article
Formosolv Pretreatment to Fractionate Paulownia Wood Following a Biorefinery Approach: Isolation and Characterization of the Lignin Fraction
by Elena Domínguez, Pablo G. del Río, Aloia Romaní, Gil Garrote, Patricia Gullón and Alberto de Vega
Agronomy 2020, 10(8), 1205; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10081205 - 17 Aug 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3052
Abstract
Paulownia is a rapid-growth tree with a high biomass production rate per year and low demand of water, which make it very suitable for intercropping systems, as it protects the crops from adverse climatic conditions, benefiting the harvest yields. Moreover, these characteristics make [...] Read more.
Paulownia is a rapid-growth tree with a high biomass production rate per year and low demand of water, which make it very suitable for intercropping systems, as it protects the crops from adverse climatic conditions, benefiting the harvest yields. Moreover, these characteristics make Paulownia a suitable raw material able to be fractionated in an integrated biorefinery scheme to obtain multiple products using a cascade conversion approach. Different delignification pretreatments of biomass have been purposed as a first stage of a lignocellulosic biorefinery. In this study, the formosolv delignification of Paulownia wood was investigated using a second order face-centered factorial design to assess the effects of the independent variables (concentrations of formic and hydrochloric acids and reaction time) on the fractionation of Paulownia wood. The maximum delignification achieved in this study (78.5%) was obtained under following conditions: 60 min, and 95% and 0.05% formic and hydrochloric acid, respectively. In addition, the remained solid phases were analyzed to determine their cellulose content and cooking liquors were also chemically analyzed and characterized. Finally, the recovered lignin by precipitation from formosolv liquor and the pristine lignin (milled wood lignin) in Paulownia wood were characterized and compared by the following techniques FTIR, NMR, high-performance size-exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) and TGA. This complete characterization allowed verifying the capacity of the formosolv process to act on the lignin, causing changes in its structure, which included both phenomena of depolymerization and condensation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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18 pages, 2699 KiB  
Article
Steam Refining with Subsequent Alkaline Lignin Extraction as an Alternative Pretreatment Method to Enhance the Enzymatic Digestibility of Corn Stover
by Malte Jörn Krafft, Marie Bendler, Andreas Schreiber and Bodo Saake
Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 811; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10060811 - 08 Jun 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2604
Abstract
Agricultural residues are promising and abundant feedstocks for the production of monomeric carbohydrates, which can be gained after pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. These monomeric carbohydrates can be fermented to platform chemicals, like ethanol or succinic acid. Due to its high availability, corn stover [...] Read more.
Agricultural residues are promising and abundant feedstocks for the production of monomeric carbohydrates, which can be gained after pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis. These monomeric carbohydrates can be fermented to platform chemicals, like ethanol or succinic acid. Due to its high availability, corn stover is a feedstock of special interest in such considerations. The natural recalcitrance of lignocellulosic material against degradation necessitates a pretreatment before the enzymatic hydrolysis. In the present study, a novel combination of steam refining and alkaline lignin extraction was tested as a pretreatment process for corn stover. This combination combines the enhancement of the enzymatic hydrolysis and steam refining lignin can be gained for further utilization. Afterward, the obtained yields after enzymatic hydrolysis were compared with those after steam refining without alkaline extraction. After steam refining at temperatures between 160 °C and 210 °C and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis with Cellic® CTec2, it was possible to enhance the digestibility of corn stover and to achieve 65.4% of the available carbohydrates at the lowest up to 89% at the highest conditions as monomers after enzymatic hydrolysis. Furthermore, the enzymatic degradation could be optimized with a subsequent alkaline lignin extraction, especially at low severities under three. After this combined pretreatment, it was possible to enhance the enzymatic digestibility and to achieve up to 106.4% of the available carbohydrates at the lowest conditions and up to 102.2% at the highest temperature as monomers after following enzymatic hydrolysis, compared to analytical acid hydrolysis. Regarding the utilization of the arising lignin after extraction, the lignin was characterized with regard to the molar mass and carbohydrate impurities. In this context, it was found that higher amounts and higher purities of lignin can be attained after pretreatment at severities higher than four. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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14 pages, 1911 KiB  
Article
Pretreatment of Hazelnut Shells as a Key Strategy for the Solubilization and Valorization of Hemicelluloses into Bioactive Compounds
by Sandra Rivas, Andrés Moure and Juan Carlos Parajó
Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 760; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10060760 - 27 May 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3536
Abstract
Hazelnut industries generate a large amount of byproducts. Among them, waste hazelnut shells (which account for about 50% of the nut weight), are potential raw materials to produce value added products. Hydrothermal pretreatment enables the solubilization of hemicelluloses, while cellulose and lignin remain [...] Read more.
Hazelnut industries generate a large amount of byproducts. Among them, waste hazelnut shells (which account for about 50% of the nut weight), are potential raw materials to produce value added products. Hydrothermal pretreatment enables the solubilization of hemicelluloses, while cellulose and lignin remain in the solid phase almost unaltered, allowing their subsequent processing for an integral valorization of the feedstock. When the reaction was performed at the optimal temperature (210 °C), hemicelluloses were mainly converted into soluble substituted oligosaccharides (OS). Further membrane processing of the liquid phase from hydrothermal pretreatment enabled the refining of the OS, which accounted for up to 90.87 wt% of the nonvolatile solutes (NVC) in the refined solution, which also contained 5 g of natural bound phenolics/100 g NVC. The target products showed a dose-dependent antioxidant activity, conferred by the phenolic components. Substituted OS were made up of xylose backbones with a wide degree of polymerization distribution, and showed structures highly substituted by acetyl and uronic groups. The data included in this study provide the basis for assessing the large-scale manufacture of substituted oligosaccharides with bound phenolics as bioactive components of functional use in foods, cosmetics, or pharmaceuticals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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14 pages, 1977 KiB  
Article
Production of Cellulose Nanofibers from Olive Tree Harvest—A Residue with Wide Applications
by Mónica Sánchez-Gutiérrez, Eduardo Espinosa, Isabel Bascón-Villegas, Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez, Elena Carrasco and Alejandro Rodríguez
Agronomy 2020, 10(5), 696; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10050696 - 13 May 2020
Cited by 50 | Viewed by 5640
Abstract
With the aim of identifying new sources to produce cellulose nanofibers, olive tree pruning biomass (OTPB) was proposed for valorization as a sustainable source of cellulose. OTPB was subjected to a soda pulping process for cellulose purification and to facilitate the delamination of [...] Read more.
With the aim of identifying new sources to produce cellulose nanofibers, olive tree pruning biomass (OTPB) was proposed for valorization as a sustainable source of cellulose. OTPB was subjected to a soda pulping process for cellulose purification and to facilitate the delamination of the fiber in the nanofibrillation process. Unbleached and bleached pulp were used to study the effect of lignin in the production of cellulose nanofibers through different pretreatments (mechanical and TEMPO-mediated oxidation). High-pressure homogenization was used as the nanofibrillation treatment. It was observed that for mechanical pretreatment, the presence of lignin in the fiber produces a greater fibrillation, resulting in a smaller width than that achieved with bleached fiber. In the case of TEMPO-mediated oxidation, the cellulose nanofiber characteristics show that the presence of lignin has an adverse effect on fiber oxidation, resulting in lower nanofibrillation. It was observed that the crystallinity of the nanofibers is lower than that of the original fiber, especially for unbleached nanofibers. The residual lignin content resulted in a greater thermal stability of the cellulose nanofibers, especially for those obtained by TEMPO-mediated oxidation. The characteristics of the cellulose nanofibers obtained in this work identify a gateway to many possibilities for reinforcement agents in paper suspension and polymeric matrices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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14 pages, 2049 KiB  
Article
Evaluating Feruloyl Esterase—Xylanase Synergism for Hydroxycinnamic Acid and Xylo-Oligosaccharide Production from Untreated, Hydrothermally Pre-Treated and Dilute-Acid Pre-Treated Corn Cobs
by Lithalethu Mkabayi, Samkelo Malgas, Brendan S. Wilhelmi and Brett I. Pletschke
Agronomy 2020, 10(5), 688; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10050688 - 13 May 2020
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 2604
Abstract
Agricultural residues are considered the most promising option as a renewable feedstock for biofuel and high valued-added chemical production due to their availability and low cost. The efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of agricultural residues into value-added products such as sugars and hydroxycinnamic acids is [...] Read more.
Agricultural residues are considered the most promising option as a renewable feedstock for biofuel and high valued-added chemical production due to their availability and low cost. The efficient enzymatic hydrolysis of agricultural residues into value-added products such as sugars and hydroxycinnamic acids is a challenge because of the recalcitrant properties of the native biomass. Development of synergistic enzyme cocktails is required to overcome biomass residue recalcitrance, and achieve high yields of potential value-added products. In this study, the synergistic action of two termite metagenome-derived feruloyl esterases (FAE5 and FAE6), and an endo-xylanase (Xyn11) from Thermomyces lanuginosus, was optimized using 0.5% (w/v) insoluble wheat arabinoxylan (a model substrate) and then applied to 1% (w/v) corn cobs for the efficient production of xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS) and hydroxycinnamic acids. The enzyme combination of 66% Xyn11 and 33% FAE5 or FAE6 (protein loading) produced the highest amounts of XOS, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid from untreated, hydrothermal, and acid pre-treated corn cobs. The combination of 66% Xyn11 and 33% FAE6 displayed an improvement in reducing sugars of approximately 1.9-fold and 3.4-fold for hydrothermal and acid pre-treated corn cobs (compared to Xyn11 alone), respectively. The hydrolysis product profiles revealed that xylobiose was the dominant XOS produced from untreated and pre-treated corn cobs. These results demonstrated that the efficient production of hydroxycinnamic acids and XOS from agricultural residues for industrial applications can be achieved through the synergistic action of FAE5 or FAE6 and Xyn11. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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15 pages, 1823 KiB  
Article
Recovery of High Purity Lignin and Digestible Cellulose from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Using Low Acid-Catalyzed Organosolv Pretreatment
by Kinanthi Mondylaksita, Jorge A. Ferreira, Ria Millati, Wiratni Budhijanto, Claes Niklasson and Mohammad J. Taherzadeh
Agronomy 2020, 10(5), 674; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10050674 - 11 May 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4440
Abstract
The lignocellulosic residue from the palm oil industry, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB), represents a challenge to both producing industries and environment due to its disposal difficulties. Alternatively, OPEFB can be used for the production of valuable products if pretreatment methods, which [...] Read more.
The lignocellulosic residue from the palm oil industry, oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB), represents a challenge to both producing industries and environment due to its disposal difficulties. Alternatively, OPEFB can be used for the production of valuable products if pretreatment methods, which overcome OPEFB recalcitrance and allow tailored valorization of all its carbohydrates and lignin, are developed. Specifically, high-value applications for lignin, to increase its contribution to the feasibility of lignocellulosic biorefineries, demand high-purity fractions. In this study, acid-catalyzed organosolv using ethanol as a solvent was used for the recovery of high-purity lignin and digestible cellulose. Factors including catalyst type and its concentration, temperature, retention time, and solid-to-liquid (S/L) ratio were found to influence lignin purity and recovery. At the best conditions (0.07% H2SO4, 210 °C, 90 min, and S/L ratio of 1:10), a lignin purity and recovery of 70.6 ± 4.9% and 64.94 ± 1.09%, respectively, were obtained in addition to the glucan-rich fraction. The glucan-rich fraction showed 94.06 ± 4.71% digestibility within 18 h at an enzyme loading of 30 filter paper units (FPU) /g glucan. Therefore, ethanol organosolv can be used for fractionating OPEFB into three high-quality fractions (glucan, lignin, and hemicellulosic compounds) for further tailored biorefining using low acid concentrations. Especially, the use of ethanol opens the possibility for integration of 1st and 2nd generation ethanol benefiting from the separation of high-purity lignin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

20 pages, 1626 KiB  
Review
Consolidated Bioprocessing, an Innovative Strategy towards Sustainability for Biofuels Production from Crop Residues: An Overview
by Edgar Olguin-Maciel, Anusuiya Singh, Rubi Chable-Villacis, Raul Tapia-Tussell and Héctor A. Ruiz
Agronomy 2020, 10(11), 1834; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/agronomy10111834 - 22 Nov 2020
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 8402
Abstract
Increased energy demands in today’s world have led to the exploitation of fossil resources as fuel. Fossil resources are not only on the verge of extinction but also causing environmental and economic issues. Due to these reasons, scientists have started focusing their interest [...] Read more.
Increased energy demands in today’s world have led to the exploitation of fossil resources as fuel. Fossil resources are not only on the verge of extinction but also causing environmental and economic issues. Due to these reasons, scientists have started focusing their interest on other eco-friendly processes to biofuel and recently, second-generation biorefinery is gaining much more attention. In second-generation biorefinery, the main objective is the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass cost-effectively. Therefore, many scientists started different bioprocessing techniques like Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP) to produce ethanol by using a single or plethora of microorganisms to produce ethanol in a single process. In this review, in-depth study on CBP is assessed as well as biofuel’s socio-economic value and a brief study of biorefineries. The study not only involves innovative approaches used in CBP but their effect on society and economic aspects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pretreatment and Bioconversion of Crop Residues)
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