Advances in Elephant Reproduction and Conservation

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Wildlife".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 16575

Special Issue Editor

1. Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65897, USA
2. White Oak Center for Elephant Conservation, Polk City, FL 32097, USA
Interests: elephant reproduction; elephant physiology; elephant P53 genes; elephant medicine; elephant endocrinology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Elephants have many unique features regarding reproduction. A long estrous cycle and gestation, embryonic diapause, musth in male elephants, and unique reproductive anatomy. Most of what we currently know about elephant reproduction has been studied with elephants in human care. Elephant reproduction continues to be explored, and new information is vital for the conservation of elephants in human care and in free-ranging habitats. 

There are many issues facing both African and Asian elephant conservation. Populations of free-ranging elephants are under threat because of human–elephant conflict (HEC) from snare traps, poaching for ivory, crop raiding, encroachment of human agriculture into elephant habitat and by incursions of elephants into local villages and their crops. Added to this is the emerging effect of elephant endothelial herpesvirus-hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) on both free-ranging and elephants in human care, especially as it results in a high percentage of young elephant mortality.

Dr. Dennis Schmitt
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • elephant
  • conservation
  • reproduction
  • human elephant conflict
  • musth
  • gestation
  • elephant endothelial herpesvirus

Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

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28 pages, 8336 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Longitudinal Testosterone, Cortisol, and Musth in Male Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), Effects of Aging, and Adrenal Responses to Social Changes and Health Events
by Sharon S. Glaeser, Katie L. Edwards, Stephen Paris, Candace Scarlata, Bob Lee, Nadja Wielebnowski, Shawn Finnell, Chaleamchat Somgird and Janine L. Brown
Animals 2022, 12(10), 1332; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12101332 - 23 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2523
Abstract
The conservation of endangered species and sustainability of managed populations requires considerations to ensure the health and welfare of individuals. Male elephants experience a biological phenomenon called “musth”, which is characterized by increased testosterone production, temporal gland secretion and urine dribbling, heightened aggression [...] Read more.
The conservation of endangered species and sustainability of managed populations requires considerations to ensure the health and welfare of individuals. Male elephants experience a biological phenomenon called “musth”, which is characterized by increased testosterone production, temporal gland secretion and urine dribbling, heightened aggression and sexual behavior, and therefore can pose unique challenges for human safety and animal welfare. This study characterized longitudinal (9 to 22 years) patterns of circulating testosterone and cortisol in relation to musth in four adult Asian elephant bulls spanning ages from 12 to 54 years. Age-related effects on musth activity and adrenal responses to social changes and clinical health events were also examined. All bulls exhibited regular annual musth cycles. Circulating cortisol covaried positively with testosterone and musth, highlighting intrinsic patterns that should be considered when evaluating the impact of social, health, and environmental changes on adrenal glucocorticoid activity. Except for an end-of-life cortisol increase in one bull, there was no clear evidence of chronically elevated cortisol secretion outside of musth in any individual. Testosterone decreased with age in sexually mature bulls, whereas age-related changes in cortisol varied across individuals, with the three older bulls showing the greatest rate of change during musth versus inter-musth periods. In contrast to physiological factors, there was no evidence of social factors, such as addition of a new male and death of male herdmates, impacting adrenal glucocorticoid activity in these bulls in the short term. Changes in cortisol were associated with treatment for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) in two bulls, increasing after start of treatment and decreasing with cessation of treatment, but were not clearly associated with activation of disease. This study highlights the importance of longitudinal hormone monitoring to track changes in physiological function and responses to social, health, and environmental change in elephant bulls, which is important for making more informed decisions on how to manage male elephants under varying degrees of human care to ensure welfare and safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Elephant Reproduction and Conservation)
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22 pages, 1075 KiB  
Article
Social Behavior and Group Formation in Male Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): The Effects of Age and Musth in Wild and Zoo-Housed Animals
by Chase A. LaDue, Rajnish P. G. Vandercone, Wendy K. Kiso and Elizabeth W. Freeman
Animals 2022, 12(9), 1215; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12091215 - 08 May 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3087
Abstract
Asian elephants are endangered, and the long-term viability of the species depends on integrative approaches to address the sustainability of in-situ and ex-situ populations. Growing evidence shows that male elephants exhibit extensive and flexible social behavior that rivals the complexity of that of [...] Read more.
Asian elephants are endangered, and the long-term viability of the species depends on integrative approaches to address the sustainability of in-situ and ex-situ populations. Growing evidence shows that male elephants exhibit extensive and flexible social behavior that rivals the complexity of that of females. Male elephant sociality is expected to change dramatically around the unique sexual state of musth. However, data related to male Asian elephant sociality is lacking. Here, we conducted complementary observations in Wasgamuwa National Park, Sri Lanka, and North American zoos of male Asian elephant social behavior. Age and musth status, along with other factors, were associated with variation in social behavior and group formation of males. In wild male elephants, both musth status and age impacted elephant associations within all-male and mixed-sex groups: non-musth elephants were generally sighted less often in mixed-sex groups as they aged, while the inverse occurred with musth elephants. Musth status interacted with age to predict the number of conspecifics with which a wild male elephant associated: younger males were observed with more females during non-musth (but the opposite was true during musth), and male elephants between 20 and 30 years were observed with the highest number of male conspecifics except during musth. Finally, we found variation in aggression, prosocial behavior, and submissive behavior was influenced by intrinsic (age and musth status) and extrinsic factors (group size and type) in similar ways in both populations; prosocial behavior was most common and was influenced by the number of conspecifics present (both populations), and age, group type, and musth status (zoo population), while aggression was rare, especially among older elephants. We suggest that longitudinal studies of this threatened species will be particularly helpful to promote the reproduction and conservation of Asian elephants in in-situ and ex-situ environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Elephant Reproduction and Conservation)
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Review

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18 pages, 361 KiB  
Review
Of Elephants and Other Mammals: A Comparative Review of Reproductive Tumors and Potential Impact on Conservation
by Lisa M. Abegglen, Tara M. Harrison, Anneke Moresco, Jared S. Fowles, Brigid V. Troan, Wendy K. Kiso, Dennis Schmitt, Amy M. Boddy and Joshua D. Schiffman
Animals 2022, 12(15), 2005; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12152005 - 08 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 8487
Abstract
Reproductive tumors can impact conception, pregnancy, and birth in mammals. These impacts are well documented in humans, while data in other mammals are limited. An urgent need exists to understand the reproductive impact of these lesions in endangered species, because some endangered species [...] Read more.
Reproductive tumors can impact conception, pregnancy, and birth in mammals. These impacts are well documented in humans, while data in other mammals are limited. An urgent need exists to understand the reproductive impact of these lesions in endangered species, because some endangered species have a documented high prevalence of reproductive tumors. This article documents that the prevalence of both benign and malignant neoplasia differs between African and Asian elephants, with Asian elephants more frequently diagnosed and negatively affected by both. The prevalence of these tumors across mammalian species is compared, and impact plus treatment options in human medicine are reviewed to inform decision making in elephants. Evidence suggests that reproductive tumors can negatively impact elephant conservation. Future studies that document reproductive outcomes, including the success of various treatment approaches in elephants with tumors will benefit conservation efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Elephant Reproduction and Conservation)

Other

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11 pages, 542 KiB  
Case Report
Administration of Altrenogest to Maintain Pregnancy in Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus)
by Jack J. Kottwitz, Wendy Kiso, Dawn M. Boothe and Dennis Schmitt
Animals 2022, 12(14), 1852; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12141852 - 21 Jul 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1566
Abstract
Progesterone and progesterone derivatives are key hormones in pregnancy maintenance in mammalian species. Cessation of pregnancy, including birth or miscarriage, is certain if levels of these hormones drop below a given species-specific requirement necessary to maintain pregnancy. The synthetic progestin, altrenogest, is FDA-approved [...] Read more.
Progesterone and progesterone derivatives are key hormones in pregnancy maintenance in mammalian species. Cessation of pregnancy, including birth or miscarriage, is certain if levels of these hormones drop below a given species-specific requirement necessary to maintain pregnancy. The synthetic progestin, altrenogest, is FDA-approved in the United States for suppression of estrus or synchronization and is administered extra-label to multiple species to maintain pregnancies in cases of luteal deficiency or otherwise abnormally low progesterone levels. Three pregnant Asian elephants received altrenogest from 41 to 131 days during the final trimester of pregnancy, with parturition occurring from 15 to 31 days after altrenogest administration stopped. A single dose of 0.2 mg/kg altrenogest administered to two nonpregnant Asian elephants provided pilot pharmacokinetic data. Serum samples from two of the three clinical cases and the two pilot study elephants were analyzed using Ultra Performance Liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadruple mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS). Small sample numbers limited analysis; however, the following were determined: AUC∞ of 635.4 ± 73.8 ng*h/mL, Cmax of 30.2 ± 14.4 ng/mL at a Tmax of 4 ± 2.8 h, terminal T1/2 of 47.5 ± 3.0 h, MRT of 36.0 + 3.4 h and Vd/F of 1243.8 + 275.0 L/kg. These data and the three described cases serve as an indication that altrenogest can be administered to Asian elephants as an exogenous progestin to support pregnancy in elephant pregnancies with low endogenous progestin levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Elephant Reproduction and Conservation)
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