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Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Clinical Studies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 44888

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Angela Briganti

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Guest Editor

Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, 56122 Pisa, Italy
Interests: loco-regional anaesthesia; sepsis; emergency medicine; ventilation; pain
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Hamaseh Tayari

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Clinician in Anaesthesia, Southern Counties Veterinary Specialists, Ringwood BH24 3JW, UK
Interests: loco-regional anaesthesia; horse; ventilation; neuroanaesthesia; pain
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

One of the major roles of anaesthetists is to ensure the management of any pain/nociception the patient may experience during hospitalization, and possibly extending this benefit beyond the immediate postoperative period.

In this context, there is a growing appreciation for the critical role that loco-regional anaesthesia can play in an overall multimodal anaesthetic strategy. This is especially relevant given the current focus on reducing or eliminating unnecessary peri‐operative opioid administration, improving postoperative pain relief and enabling early discharge after surgery.

Advances in pharmacology, electronics and imaging techniques and perineural catheter-based continuous infusion of local anaesthetic, have pushed research in loco-regional anaesthesia to high levels and also spread its use in daily medicine, among veterinary practice. Loco-regional anaesthesia techniques should be part of present and future veterinary anaesthetist educational programs.

This Special Issue will present recent research, case reports, and reviews on loco-regional anaesthesia in small, large, and non-conventional animals with a particular focus on methodology, clinical application and novel techniques.

We look forward to your contribution to produce an important issue about loco-regional anaesthesia.

Dr. Angela Briganti
Dr. Hamaseh Tayari
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

dog
cat
large animal
non-conventional pet
local anaesthetic
ultrasound
needle
adjuvant
nerve blocks
regional anaesthesia
perineural catheter

Related Special Issue

Second Edition: Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine in Animals (1 article)

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Observational Survey Study on the Use of Locoregional Anaesthesia in Non-Conventional Species: Current Practice and Potential Future Developments

by Nuria Quesada, Dario d’Ovidio, Matt Read, Paolo Monticelli and Chiara Adami

Animals 2022, 12(11), 1448; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12111448 - 03 Jun 2022

Viewed by 1555

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to investigate the current attitudes of veterinarians towards the use of locoregional anaesthesia in non-conventional animal species and to identify areas for future useful research on this topic. A questionnaire was circulated online. A total of 417 veterinarians, including American and European specialists/specialists-in-training in both zoological medicine and anaesthesia/analgesia (ACZM/ECZM and ACVAA/ECVAA), participated in the study. Fifty-nine percent of respondents performed locoregional anaesthesia in rabbits, with intratesticular injections and local infiltration being the most commonly-reported techniques. ACZM/ECZM specialists reportedly performed dental blocks in rabbits more frequently than ACVAA/ECVAA specialists (p = 0.030). Forty percent of respondents performed locoregional anaesthesia in rodents, with intratesticular injections, topical/splash blocks and local infiltration being the most commonly reported techniques. The proportions of respondents who reportedly used locoregional anaesthesia in ferrets, birds and reptiles were 37.9%, 34.5% and 31.2%, respectively. The use of Tuohy (p < 0.001) and spinal needles (p < 0.001), as well as of ultrasonography (p = 0.009) and nerve-stimulators (p < 0.001), was more common among ACVAA/ECVAA compared to ACZM/ECZM specialists. Major topic areas for future research were identified as dental block techniques for rabbits and rodents and blocks for the wings of birds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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12 pages, 2458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Retrograde Approach to Maxillary Nerve Block: An Alternative in Orofacial Surgeries in Horses

by Matteo Vuerich and Sara Nannarone

Animals 2022, 12(11), 1369; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12111369 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4127

Abstract

The aim of this study was to retrospectively report outcomes resulting from the approach to the maxillary nerve block (MNB) through the infraorbital canal, in terms of needles selection, drawbacks or side effects during or after block execution, and analgesic efficacy leading to clinical and cardiovascular stability during surgery. Anesthetic records of 15 horses undergoing orofacial surgery in standing analgo-sedation (STA, n = 6) and in general anesthesia (GEN, n = 9) were retrieved and analyzed. Horses in group STA required surgery for dental extraction, nasal polyp resection and maxillary/frontal sinusitis. Horses in group GEN underwent surgery for fronto-maxillary, nasal and dental diseases. Size 19 and 20 G Tuohy needles were used in adult horses weighing 350–600 kg, while size 21 and 22 G were used in younger horses or ponies. None of the horses in both groups showed complications related to the block and physiological parameters were stable and within normal ranges during surgery; overall, an adequate anesthetic/sedation depth was achieved. Our results confirm the in vivo applicability of the MNB approached within the infraorbital canal, which had been described only on cadaveric specimens. The retrograde technique resulted in a valid and easy approach to the maxillary nerve that avoids damage to periorbital structures and side effects reported with traditional techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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18 pages, 2293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiopulmonary Effects and Pharmacokinetics of Dexmedetomidine Used as an Adjunctive Analgesic to Regional Anesthesia of the Oral Cavity with Levobupivacaine in Dogs

by Matic Pavlica, Mojca Kržan, Ana Nemec, Tina Kosjek, Anže Baš and Alenka Seliškar

Animals 2022, 12(9), 1217; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12091217 - 09 May 2022

Viewed by 2182

Abstract

This study investigated the cardiopulmonary effects and pharmacokinetics of dexmedetomidine (DEX) used as an adjunctive analgesic for regional anesthesia of the oral cavity with levobupivacaine in anesthetized dogs. Forty dogs were randomly assigned to four groups of 10 dogs. All dogs received levobupivacaine (4 blocks) with DEX IO (infraorbital block, n = 10) or IA (inferior alveolar block, n = 10) or placebo (PLC; n = 10) or DEX (n = 10) was injected intravenously (IV) after administration of levobupivacaine. The dose of DEX was always 0.5 µg/kg. Cardiopulmonary parameters were recorded, and blood was drawn for the quantification of DEX in plasma using LC-MS/MS. Heart rate was lower in all LB + DEX groups, while mean arterial pressure (MAP) was higher in the LB + DEX IV and LB + DEX IA groups compared to the LB + PLC IV group. Compared to DEX IV, IO and IA administration resulted in lower MAP up to 2 min after application. Absorption of DEX was faster at IO administration (C_max and T_max were 0.47 ± 0.08 ng/mL and 7.22 ± 1.28 min and 0.76 ± 0.09 ng/mL and 7.50 ± 1.63 min for the IO and IA block, respectively). The IA administration resulted in better bioavailability and faster elimination (t_1/2 was 63.44 ± 24.15 min and 23.78 ± 3.78 min for the IO and IA block, respectively). Perineural administration of DEX may be preferable because of the less pronounced cardiovascular response compared to IV administration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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14 pages, 39311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasound-Guided Saphenous Nerve Block in Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): A Cadaveric Study Comparing Two Injectate Volumes

by Ricardo Felisberto, Derek Flaherty and Hamaseh Tayari

Animals 2022, 12(5), 624; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12050624 - 01 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2637 | Correction

Abstract

Ultrasound-guided (US-guided) loco-regional anesthesia techniques allow direct visualization and blockade of sensory nerves. The saphenous nerve (SN), a terminal branch of the femoral nerve (FN), is strictly a sensory nerve for which electrical locator devices are ineffective for localization as no effector muscle contractions can be evoked. US-guided SN block in species other than rabbits produces hind-limb analgesia without affecting FN motor function. The aims of this study were to develop a US-guided SN block technique in rabbits and to compare the spread obtained using two different dye volumes. Twelve hind-limbs from six cadavers (1.6 ± 0.1 kg) were included; after randomization, the SN block was performed on the right or left hind-limb, injecting 0.05 mL kg⁻¹ or 0.1 mL kg⁻¹ of tissue dye in lidocaine (1:50 v:v). Subsequent dissections allowed nerve staining measurements. All SNs were identified, and 17.8 ± 4.6% and 31.0 ± 8.9% of the SN length were stained using low-volume and high-volume of the dye, respectively. Regardless of the volume used, the SN was consistently stained while the motor branch of the FN was not. This US-guided technique may provide hind-limb analgesia without affecting FN motor function in rabbits undergoing mid-distal hind-limb surgeries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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13 pages, 1683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epidural Volume of Injectate Using a Dose Regimen Based on Occipito-Coccygeal Spinal Length (OCL): Randomized Clinical Study Comparing Different Ropivacaine Concentrations, with or without Morphine, in Bitches Undergoing Total Unilateral Mastectomy

by Hamaseh Tayari, Pablo E. Otero, Marco D’Agostino, Flavia Bartolini and Angela Briganti

Animals 2022, 12(5), 587; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12050587 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4211

Abstract

A prospective, randomized clinical trial was designed to compare four epidural treatments in dogs undergoing total unilateral mastectomy. The epidural volume of injectate was based on the individual occipito-coccygeal length (OCL) aiming to reach the first thoracic vertebra (T₁). The first ten dogs were allocated in a control group (C) and did not receive epidural treatment. Subsequently, forty dogs were randomly allocated in four groups of ten: epidural ropivacaine 0.5% (R_0.5%); morphine 0.1 mg kg⁻¹ plus ropivacaine 0.5% (MR_0.5%); morphine 0.1 mg kg⁻¹ plus ropivacaine 0.35% (MR_0.35%); morphine 0.1 mg kg⁻¹ plus ropivacaine 0.25% (MR_0.25%). Intraoperatively, isoflurane requirement (1.3% vs. <1.1% FE’Iso) and fentanyl requirement (9.8 vs. <1.1 µg kg⁻¹ h⁻¹) were significantly higher in C group compared to all epidural groups. Postoperatively, methadone requirement was higher (1.8 mg kg⁻¹ vs. <0.8 mg kg⁻¹) for C group compared to all epidural treatment groups. The ability to walk and to urinate returned 4 h earlier in MR_0.35% and MR_0.25%. The mean epidural volume of ropivacaine, using a dose regimen based on OCL, to reach T₁ was about 0.15 mL cm⁻¹. The addition of morphine further reduced the methadone requirement, without affecting urinary and motor functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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15 pages, 28498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of High-Volume Injections Using a Modified Dorsal Quadratus Lumborum Block Approach in Canine Cadavers

by André Marchina-Gonçalves, Francisco Gil, Francisco G. Laredo, Marta Soler, Amalia Agut and Eliseo Belda

Animals 2022, 12(1), 18; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani12010018 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3412

Abstract

The quadratus lumborum (QL) block targets the fascial plane surrounding the QL muscle providing abdominal somatic and visceral analgesia. The extension of its analgesic effects is a subject of research, as it could not cover areas of the cranial abdomen in dogs. This study assesses in eight thawed canine cadavers, the distribution of high-volume injections (0.6 mL kg⁻¹ of a mixture of methylene blue and iopromide) injected between the psoas minor muscle and the vertebral body of L1. Anatomical features of the area of interest were studied in two cadavers. In another six dogs, QL blocks were performed bilaterally under ultrasound-guidance. The distribution of contrast was evaluated by computed tomography (CT). Hypaxial abdominal muscles were dissected to visualize the dye spread (spinal nerves and sympathetic trunk) in 5 cadavers. The remaining cadaver was refrozen and cross-sectioned. CT studies showed a maximum distribution of contrast from T10 to L7. The methylene blue stained T13 (10%), L1 (100%), L2 (100%), L3 (100%), L4 (60%) and the sympathetic trunk T10 (10%), T11 (20%), T12 (30%), T13 (70%), L1 (80%), L2 (80%), L3 (60%) and L4 (30%). These findings may suggest that despite the high volume of injectate administered, this modified QL block could not produce somatic analgesia of the cranial abdomen, although it could provide visceral analgesia in dogs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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11 pages, 1647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Quadratus Lumborum Block as Part of an Opioid-Free Anaesthesia for Canine Ovariohysterectomy

by Jaime Viscasillas, Sandra Sanchis-Mora, Paula Burillo, Vicente Esteve, Ayla Del Romero, Pilar Lafuente and Jose Ignacio Redondo

Animals 2021, 11(12), 3424; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11123424 - 01 Dec 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4366

Abstract

Quadratus lumborum block (QLB) is used to provide analgesia for abdominal surgery in humans. The aim of this study was to assess an anaesthetic protocol involving the QLB for canine ovariohysterectomy. Ten dogs were included. Anaesthetic protocol consisted of premedication with IM medetomidine (20 μg kg⁻¹) and SC meloxicam (0.1 mg kg⁻¹), induction with propofol to effect, and maintenance with sevoflurane in oxygen/medical air. QLB was performed injecting 0.4 mL kg⁻¹ of 0.25% bupivacaine/iohexol per side. Computed Tomography (CT) was performed before and after surgery. Fentanyl was administered as rescue analgesia during surgery. The Short Form of The Glasgow Composite Pain Scale and thermal threshold (TT) at the level of the elbow, T₁₀, T₁₃ and L₃ were assessed before premedication and every hour postoperatively. Methadone was given as rescue analgesia postoperatively when pain score was >3. A Yuen’s test on trimmed means for dependent samples was used to analyse the data (p < 0.05). CT images showed spreading of the contrast/block for a median (range) of 3 (2–5) vertebrae, without differences between preoperative and postoperative images. One dog needed rescue analgesia during surgery. Pain score was less than 4/24 in all the animals during the first 4 h after surgery. TT showed a significant increased signal in all the areas tested, apart from the humerus, 30 min after surgery. The QLB may provide additional analgesia for canine ovariohysterectomy. Further studies are needed to assess the specific contribution of the QLB in abdominal analgesia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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12 pages, 1460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Onset of Action of Bupivacaine Administered via Dural Puncture Epidural versus Spinal, Lumbosacral, and Sacrococcygeal Epidural Injections in Dogs: Randomised Clinical Trial

by Fernando Martinez-Taboada, Tsim Christopher Sun and Jose Ignacio Redondo

Animals 2021, 11(10), 2996; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11102996 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2849

Abstract

The study aimed to compare bupivacaine onset time when administered via epidural anaesthesia injecting both at the lumbosacral and sacrococcygeal spaces, spinal anaesthesia, and DPE in clinical dogs. A total of 41 dogs requiring neuraxial anaesthesia as part of their anaesthetic protocol were recruited. They were randomly allocated to receive an epidural injection in the sacrococcygeal space aided by the nerve stimulator (SCO), an epidural injection in the lumbosacral (LS), a subarachnoid injection (SPI), or a DPE. The onset of anaesthesia was assessed every 30 s after the injection by testing the presence of patellar ligament reflex. The number of attempts and time to perform the technique were also recorded. Data were analysed using a one-way ANOVA for trimmed means with post hoc Lincoln test and a Kaplan–Meier curve. The significance level was set at p < 0.05, and the results are presented in absolute values and median (range). There was no difference in the number of attempts required to complete the techniques between groups (p = 0.97). Epidural injections (LS and SCO) tended to be shorter than SPI and DPE techniques, but there was no statistically significant difference (p = 0.071). The time to the disappearance of patellar ligament reflex (Westphal’s sign) in the SCO group was longer than in any other group. In conclusion, all techniques provided a rapid block of the patellar reflex. The SCO technique was the slowest in onset, while the other groups (SPI, DPE, and LS) were faster and almost indistinguishable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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10 pages, 1610 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mathematical Models for the Skin to Lumbosacral Epidural Distance in Dogs: A Cadaveric Computed-Tomography Study

by Tsim Christopher Sun, Mara Schier, Michelle Pui Yan Lau and Fernando Martinez-Taboada

Animals 2021, 11(10), 2974; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11102974 - 15 Oct 2021

Viewed by 2236

Abstract

This study aimed to validate previously published computed tomography (CT) derived mathematical equations with the true skin to lumbosacral epidural distance (SLED) in dog cadavers. Phase 1: The lumbar region of 11 dog cadavers were scanned in sternal recumbency to determine the effect of cranial, neutral, and caudal pelvic limb positioning on the CT derived lumbosacral epidural distance (CLED). Phase 2: The epidural space was determined using contrast epidurography, and the SLED was analysed against the mathematical equations using a body condition score (BCS) and either the cadaveric occipital-coccygeal length (OCL) (Equation (1): = 7.3 + 0.05*OCL + 16.45*BCS) or the ilium wing distance (IWD) (Equation (2): = 3.5 + 0.56*IWD + 16.6*BCS). There were no differences detected between the pelvic limb positions and the CLED. Both equations demonstrated strong correlations (Equation (1): r = 0.7196; Equation (2): r = 0.7590) with the SLED. The level of agreement was greater for Equation (1) than with Equation (2) (concordance coefficient 0.6061 and 0.3752, respectively). Equation (1) also demonstrated a closer fit to the concordance line compared with Equation (2) (bias correction factor 0.8422 and 0.4960, respectively). Further studies in live anaesthetised dogs will help to determine the usefulness of the pre-procedural knowledge when performing lumbosacral epidurals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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11 pages, 3015 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Modified Approach for the Ultrasound-Guided Quadratus Lumborum Block in Dogs: A Cadaveric Study

by Jaime Viscasillas, Jose Terrado, Reyes Marti-Scharfhausen, Diego Castiñeiras, Vicente Esteve, Niamh Clancy and Jose Ignacio Redondo

Animals 2021, 11(10), 2945; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11102945 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4103

Abstract

Ultrasound-guided quadratus lumborum block (QLB) is a locoregional technique described in canine cadavers. The aim of this study was to assess a modified approach to QLB to minimise potential complications such as abdominal organ puncture. Nine canine cadavers were included and were positioned in lateral recumbency. An ultrasound-guided QLB was performed on each side. The probe was placed in the transverse position over the lumbar muscles just caudal to the last rib, and a needle was advanced in-plane from a dorso-lateral to a ventro-medial. A volume of 0.2 mL kg⁻¹ of a mixture of iomeprol and methylene blue was injected. Computed tomography (CT) and dissection were performed to evaluate the spreading. Success was defined as staining of the nerve with a length of more than 0.6 cm. Potential complications such as intra-abdominal, epidural, or intravascular spreading of the mixture were also assessed. The CT images showed a T13 to L7 vertebra distribution, with a median of 5 (3–6). Dissection showed staining of the nerves from T13 to L4, with a median of 3 (2–5). No complications were found. This modified approach to QLB is safe and shows similar results to the previous studies in canine carcass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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9 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrasound-Guided Lateral Transversus Abdominis Plane (TAP) Block in Rabbits: A Cadaveric Study

by Caterina Di Bella, Luca Pennasilico, Francesco Staffieri, Federica Serino and Angela Palumbo Piccionello

Animals 2021, 11(7), 1953; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11071953 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4848

Abstract

The aims of the study were to describe the ultrasonographic-guided lateral TAP block in rabbit cadavers and evaluate the spread of a lidocaine/methylene blue solution through a single fascial infiltration. The US-guided block and anatomical dissections were performed in 17 New Zealand rabbit cadavers. The probe was placed perpendicular to the column, one centimetre ventrally to the transverse processes, halfway between the iliac crest and the costal margin. External oblique (EO), internal oblique (IO), and transversus abdominis (TA) muscles were visualised, and 1 mL/kg of lidocaine 2% plus methylene blue 1% was injected. After dissection, the branches of spinal nerves stained were measured. Moreover, the percentage of length and height of the area marked were calculated. A good visualisation of the TAP was obtained in all 34 hemiabdomens. T11 nerve eminence was successfully stained in 52% of cases. T12, L1, and L2 were stained in 75%, 95%, and 100% of cases, respectively. L3 and L4 were stained in 60% and 40% of cases, respectively. The lateral TAP block with a single point of injection can be easily performed in rabbits, but it is not sufficient to cover the nerve eminences of the cranial abdomen. The two-point TAP block (lateral and subcostal) could represent a better option, particularly when large surgical incisions are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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10 pages, 1942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proximal Perineural Femoral Nerve Injection in Pigs Using an Ultrasound-Guided Lateral Subiliac Approach—A Cadaveric Study

by Robert Trujanovic, Pablo E. Otero, Peter Marhofer, Ulrike Auer and Silvio Kau

Animals 2021, 11(6), 1759; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ani11061759 - 12 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4417

Abstract

Desensitizing the femoral nerve (FN) improves pain control in several species undergoing pelvic limb surgeries. Despite its advantages, this method has not yet been described in pigs, although they make an accepted surgical animal model. Based on anatomical dissections, first performed in two pig cadavers, an ultrasound-guided access for localization and perineural infiltration of the FN trunk at the iliopsoas compartment level was specified. The FN was found running between the psoas major and medial portion of iliac muscle. Ultrasonographically, the FN appeared as a hypoechogenic round–oval structure surrounded by a hyperechogenic rim. Technical feasibility and accuracy were assessed in six additional pig cadavers by injecting 0.15 mL kg⁻¹ methylene blue dye bilaterally in direct proximity to the nerve. The needle was inserted caudoventral to the coxal tuber, traversing the ultrasound plane as it progressed towards the FN in dorsomedial direction. Staining of the nerve was evaluated by dissection. The injection was considered effective if the nerve was stained in its entire circumference over a length of 2 cm. FNs of all investigated individuals could be successfully stained. This ultrasound-guided subiliac approach allows feasible and accurate access to the FN and may be useful in producing a successful blockade in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Loco-Regional Anaesthesia in Veterinary Medicine)

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