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Applied Sciences
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Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎
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Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 18704

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Valentina Belova

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
Interests: in situ characterization and growth monitoring of 2D materials and thin films via X-rays and optical methods; study of structure–properties relationships in thin films and nanostructures for organic electronics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We live in a fascinating era of extremely rapid technological evolution. A countless number of new devices appear every year, which are cheaper and at the same time more powerful and efficient than their predecessors. For more than 50 years, the electronics industry has been developing in accordance with the well-known Moore’s law with the number of transistors per chip doubling every 2 years. The physical limits of transistor size and defect density have almost been achieved and even are about to be extended. Despite the never-ending race for efficiency, the developed societies are becoming more and more concerned about the impact of technological progress and conveniences on the environment and human health. Many measures have been already taken to reduce the use of hazardous materials in the processing as well as the production costs. Since the majority of the manufacturing steps in the electronics industry involve different kinds of thin-film deposition, there is a strong need for finding solutions to overcome the remaining health and environmental issues associated with thin-film technologies.

Here, we kindly invite authors to contribute to our new Special Issue, “Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition”, devoted to recent advances in the development of strategies for low-toxicity and/or low-energy processing being able to reduce raw material waste and emission of toxic agents during device manufacturing and after the disposal or abandonment. Research may cover (but is not limited to) any of the processing stages, such as formation of substrates, contacts, and interconnections; active layers in electronic devices (e.g., solar cells, FETs, LEDs, sensors); and other applications such as thin-film batteries and coatings.

Dr. Valentina Belova
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • thin-film deposition
  • low- or non-toxicity processing
  • vacuum-free CVD
  • heavy-metal-free deposition
  • lead (Pb)-free perovskite solar cells
  • biodegradable thin films
  • environmental friendliness
  • large-scale production
  • cost-effective production
  • low-energy consumption

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 3641 KiB  
Article
Effect of Selective Lateral Chromium Doping by RF Magnetron Sputtering on the Structural, and Opto-Electrical Properties of Nickel Oxide
by Mohammad Shah Jamal, Khan Sobayel, Halina Misran, Taskina Nasrin, Khaled Althubeiti, Hend I. Alkhammash, Md. Shahiduzzaman, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Nowshad Amin and Md. Akhtaruzzaman
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11546; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app112311546 - 06 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1725
Abstract
In this study, chromium (Cr)-doped nickel oxide (NiO) thin films were deposited by employing selective lateral doping of Cr in NiO by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering at different doping times ranging from 0 s (undoped) to 80 s. The structural, optical, and electrical properties [...] Read more.
In this study, chromium (Cr)-doped nickel oxide (NiO) thin films were deposited by employing selective lateral doping of Cr in NiO by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering at different doping times ranging from 0 s (undoped) to 80 s. The structural, optical, and electrical properties of the resulting Cr-doped NiO thin films were investigated. Structural investigation from XRD patterns indicated that the grown Cr-doped NiO layer crystallized in a cubic phase. Broadening of the diffraction peak with increasing doping time from 0 s to 80 s led to a reduction in the crystallite size that varied from 23.52 nm to 14.65 nm. Compared with the undoped NiO, the diffraction peak along the (200) plane shifted from left to right as a function of doping time. This result indicated that Cr+3 could easily enter the NiO lattice. Results from the Hall-effect study disclosed that electrical properties of Cr-doped NiO was highly dependent on doping time. The conductivity of NiO was increased with doping time, and the highest conductivity (8.73 × 10−2 Scm−1) was achieved at a doping time of 80 s. Finally, optical investigations revealed that as doping time increased, the optical bandgap of Cr-doped NiO films dropped from 3.43 eV to 3.28 eV. The highest Urbach energy at higher doping time indicated that crystallinity became poorer, and the degree of defects increased with increasing doping time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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14 pages, 6932 KiB  
Article
Room-Temperature Formation of Hard BCx Films by Low Power Magnetron Sputtering
by Veronica Sulyaeva, Maxim Khomyakov and Marina Kosinova
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(21), 9896; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11219896 - 22 Oct 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1642
Abstract
Boron carbide is one of the most important non-metallic materials. Amorphous BCx films were synthesized at room temperature by single- and dual-target magnetron sputtering processes. A B4C target and C target were operated using an RF signal and a DC [...] Read more.
Boron carbide is one of the most important non-metallic materials. Amorphous BCx films were synthesized at room temperature by single- and dual-target magnetron sputtering processes. A B4C target and C target were operated using an RF signal and a DC signal, respectively. The effect of using single- and dual-target deposition and process parameters on the chemical bonding and composition of the films as well as their functional properties were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray energy dispersive analysis, X-ray diffraction, ellipsometry, and spectrophotometry. It was found that the film properties depend on the sputtering power and the used targets. EDX data show that the composition of the samples varied from B2C to practically BC2 in the case of using an additional C target. According to the XPS data, it corresponds to the different chemical states of the boron atom. A nanoindentation study showed that the film with a composition close to B2C deposited with the highest B4C target power reached a hardness of 25 GPa and Young’s modulus of 230 GPa. The optical properties of the films also depend on the composition, so the band gap (Eg) of the BCx film varied in the range of 2.1–2.8 eV, while the Eg of the carbon-rich films decreased to 1.1 eV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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10 pages, 7520 KiB  
Article
Carbenoxolone as a Multifunctional Vehicle for Electrodeposition of Materials
by Xinqian Liu, Stephen Veldhuis, Ritch Mathews and Igor Zhitomirsky
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 9110; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11199110 - 30 Sep 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1315
Abstract
This investigation describes for the first time the application of carbenoxolone for electrophoretic deposition (EPD) of different carbon materials, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and their composite films. Carbenoxolone is a versatile biosurfactant, which adsorbs on materials due to its amphiphilic structure and allows their charging [...] Read more.
This investigation describes for the first time the application of carbenoxolone for electrophoretic deposition (EPD) of different carbon materials, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and their composite films. Carbenoxolone is a versatile biosurfactant, which adsorbs on materials due to its amphiphilic structure and allows their charging and dispersion. Moreover, carbenoxolone exhibits film-forming properties, which are investigated in experiments on EPD of films using water and ethanol-water solvents. The new deposition process is monitored in situ and the deposition yield and film microstructure are analyzed at different conditions. The EPD mechanism of materials involves electrode reactions of the carbenoxolone surfactant. The data of potentiodynamic studies coupled with the results of impedance spectroscopy show that PTFE films can be applied to protect metals from corrosion. Electron microscopy, electrochemical techniques and modeling are used for analysis of the microstructure and porosity of films prepared at different conditions. Carbenoxolone is applied as a co-surfactant for the EPD of composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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14 pages, 7468 KiB  
Article
XPS, SEM, DSC and Nanoindentation Characterization of Silver Nanoparticle-Coated Biopolymer Pellets
by Justina G. Motas, Nima E. Gorji, Dumitru Nedelcu, Dermot Brabazon and Fabrizio Quadrini
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7706; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11167706 - 21 Aug 2021
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3985
Abstract
The development of environmentally friendly materials has been the focus of many research groups in recent years due to increased harmful effects of plastics on the environment. Bio-based materials are considered a key solution from a sustainable manufacturing perspective. The nano-coating of biopolymer [...] Read more.
The development of environmentally friendly materials has been the focus of many research groups in recent years due to increased harmful effects of plastics on the environment. Bio-based materials are considered a key solution from a sustainable manufacturing perspective. The nano-coating of biopolymer blends with silver nanoparticles is the subject of challenging research projects in line with the EU Directive on environment protection and sustainable manufacturing. Coating biopolymers with silver nanoparticles provides an antimicrobial and antiviral active surface. In this work, we develop silver nanoparticle-coated biopolymer Arboblend V2 Nature pellets. The main goal is to obtain a new material with antibacterial action obtained from the blending of a biopolymer pellets with silver nanoparticles through physical vapor deposition. The study is divided in three steps. The first step represents the silver nano-coating of the Arboblend V2 Nature and the characterization of the coated/raw pellets. The second step involves the injection molding of the silver nano-coated pellets and the characterization of the samples obtained. The last step regards the press molding of the coated pellets in order to obtain thin films, as well as their characterization. The PVD-sputtering technique is used to coat the pellets with silver nanoparticles. This process is especially optimized for coating raw materials with high water content and small-size pellets. The mechanical properties, surface chemical composition and the thermal properties of the both virgin and silver nanoparticle-coated biopolymer pellets are measured and analyzed for mechanical and thermal resistance of the nano-coating layer. Differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoemission spectroscopy and nanoindentation mechanical testing is performed. The calorimetry test detects no significant alteration of the biopolymer produced from the PVD process and confirms the optimized PVD process for nano-coating of the Arboblend V2 Nature pellets with a viable application in nano-silver–biopolymer composite products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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14 pages, 3982 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Long-Term Stability of Different Polymers and Their Blends with PEO to Produce Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Non-Toxic Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
by Marius Dotter, Jan Lukas Storck, Michelle Surjawidjaja, Sonia Adabra and Timo Grothe
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(13), 5834; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11135834 - 23 Jun 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1901
Abstract
The electrolyte for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is subject of constant innovation, as the problems of leakage and drying greatly reduce the long-term stability of a device. One possible way to solve these problems is the use of gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) with [...] Read more.
The electrolyte for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is subject of constant innovation, as the problems of leakage and drying greatly reduce the long-term stability of a device. One possible way to solve these problems is the use of gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) with a gelling structure, which offer different advantages based on the used polymers. Here, potential GPE systems based on dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as solvent for low-cost, non-toxic and environmentally friendly DSSCs were investigated comparatively. In order to observe a potential improvement in long-term stability, the efficiencies of DSSCs with different GPEs, consisting of polyacrylonitrile (PAN), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and their blends with poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO), were investigated over a period of 120 days. The results indicate that blending the polymers with PEO achieves better results concerning long-term stability and overall efficiency. Especially the mixtures with PAN and PVDF show only slight signs of deterioration after 120 days of measurement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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Review

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28 pages, 5424 KiB  
Review
A Review of Fabrication Technologies for Carbon Electrode-Based Micro-Supercapacitors
by Veerle Vandeginste
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(2), 862; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app12020862 - 14 Jan 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6818
Abstract
The very fast evolution in wearable electronics drives the need for energy storage micro-devices, which have to be flexible. Micro-supercapacitors are of high interest because of their high power density, long cycle lifetime and fast charge and discharge. Recent developments on micro-supercapacitors focus [...] Read more.
The very fast evolution in wearable electronics drives the need for energy storage micro-devices, which have to be flexible. Micro-supercapacitors are of high interest because of their high power density, long cycle lifetime and fast charge and discharge. Recent developments on micro-supercapacitors focus on improving the energy density, overall electrochemical performance, and mechanical properties. In this review, the different types of micro-supercapacitors and configurations are briefly introduced. Then, the advances in carbon electrode materials are presented, including activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, onion-like carbon, and carbide-derived carbon. The different types of electrolytes used in studies on micro-supercapacitors are also treated, including aqueous, organic, ionic liquid, solid-state, and quasi-solid-state electrolytes. Furthermore, the latest developments in fabrication techniques for micro-supercapacitors, such as different deposition, coating, etching, and printing technologies, are discussed in this review on carbon electrode-based micro-supercapacitors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Technologies: Low-Cost and Low-Toxicity Thin Film Deposition‎)
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