Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2023) | Viewed by 19760

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We would like to invite you to contribute to a Special Issue of Applied Sciences journal that will be dedicated to the evaluation of the effect of high temperatures on rocks and rock masses.

The variation in physical, mineralogical, and mechanical properties of rocks with temperature is an issue of increasing interest among the scientific community, due to its applicability in different fields of engineering and architecture, such as mining, geothermal energy, underground storage of radioactive waste, building materials, tunneling, and rock drilling. As a general overview, an increase in temperature leads to important changes in micro and macro properties of rocks such as the growth of pores and fissures, the decrease of ultrasonic wave propagation, uniaxial compression strength, and elastic modulus, as well as in other organoleptic properties. Altogether, a temperature increase points to a decay in rock integrity, whose magnitude and key temperatures strongly depend on the type of rocks, and their diverse physical and mineralogical properties. The implications of this degeneration on the physical and mechanical properties of the rock have serious implications on its subsequent behavior, causing severe effects on the safety of buildings and infrastructures built on or with rocks.

The scope of this Special Issue is to gather original fundamental and applied research concerning experimental, theoretical, computational, and case studies that contribute towards the understanding of temperature effects on rocks and rock masses. The topics include, but are not limited to the following:

  • New standardized laboratory and in situ techniques and methods to evaluate thermal effects on rocks and rock masses.
  • Evaluation of physical and mechanical changes on the properties of rocks and rock masses due to fires or high temperatures at micro and macro scales.
  • Influence of the characteristics of heating processes (e.g., duration, temperature gradient increase, number of cycles, etc.) and extinguishment methods on rock properties.
  • Case studies showing laboratory or real scale experiences of temperature and fires on rocks and rock masses.
  • Restoration and reinforcing methods of rock elements (buildings, hillslopes, tunnels, caverns, etc.) affected by fires or high temperatures.
  • Advances in the development of cutting-edge rock excavation and drilling methods based on the application of temperature.
  • Development of new physical and numerical models for the understanding and evaluation of the effects of temperature on rocks and rock masses.
  • Further related topics.

Prof. Dr. Roberto Tomás
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • thermal damage
  • fire
  • fracturing
  • strength reduction
  • physical and mechanical properties
  • temperature effect
  • microstructure deterioration
  • heating and water-cooling treatment
  • thermal cracking
  • modeling
  • testing

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 8510 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Thermally Induced Strain Effects on a Jointed Rock Mass through Microseismic Monitoring at the Acuto Field Laboratory (Italy)
by Guglielmo Grechi, Danilo D’Angiò and Salvatore Martino
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2489; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app13042489 - 15 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1127
Abstract
The study of the deformation of rock masses in response to near-surface thermal stresses is nowadays considered crucial in the field of geological risk mitigation. The superposition of heating and cooling cycles can influence the mechanical behavior of rock masses by inducing inelastic [...] Read more.
The study of the deformation of rock masses in response to near-surface thermal stresses is nowadays considered crucial in the field of geological risk mitigation. The superposition of heating and cooling cycles can influence the mechanical behavior of rock masses by inducing inelastic deformations that can trigger shallow slope instabilities, such as rockfalls and rock topples. This study reports the main outcomes obtained from the analysis of 20 month long microseismic monitoring at the Acuto field laboratory (Central Italy), where an integrated geotechnical and geophysical monitoring system has been operating since 2015. A preliminary event classification was performed through the analysis of time- and frequency-domain characteristic features of the extracted waveforms. Furthermore, the evolution of the local microseismicity was explored as a function of environmental factors (i.e., rock and air temperature, thermal gradients and ranges, and rainfalls) to highlight potential correlations. The here presented results highlight nontrivial insights into the role played by continuous near-surface temperature fluctuations and extreme thermal transients in influencing the stability of rock masses. In particular, the comparison of monitoring periods characterized by the most intense microseismic activity highlights a peculiar distribution of microseismicity during the heating and cooling phases of the rock mass in relation to different environmental conditions. These behaviors can be interpreted as the consequence of different driving mechanisms at the base of local failures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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14 pages, 4984 KiB  
Article
The Use of Magnetic Susceptibility as a Technique to Measure the Impact of Wildfires on Archaeological Heritage
by Alejandra Sanchez-Roda, Belén Oliva-Urcia and Miguel Gomez-Heras
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(19), 10033; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app121910033 - 06 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1672
Abstract
Wildfires are one of the main threats of natural areas and often fires can affect protected or heritage areas and properties, in which the preservation requirements demand the use of non-destructive techniques (NDTs). The magnetic susceptibility is an NDT that provides information on [...] Read more.
Wildfires are one of the main threats of natural areas and often fires can affect protected or heritage areas and properties, in which the preservation requirements demand the use of non-destructive techniques (NDTs). The magnetic susceptibility is an NDT that provides information on the mineralogical composition of the materials but has never been applied to the evaluation of fires. Here, we combine laboratory with field analysis to test the applicability of the magnetic susceptibility for the assessment of the impacts of wildfires. The laboratory results showed an increase in the magnetic susceptibility with the temperature, more evident in the samples heated to 600 °C and above. The in situ measures revealed a spatial variation in the magnetic susceptibility, which was related to the behaviour of the fire in the area. The samples were later analysed with other magnetic destructive techniques that were used to confirm the mineralogical processes that occurred in the materials. The increase in the susceptibility values were due to the formation of iron oxides. The destructive analysis also showed the presence of minerals such as hematite and magnetite in the samples. Overall, the study allowed a first approach to test the magnetic susceptibility as a simple and fast way to measure the impacts of wildfires. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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14 pages, 1255 KiB  
Article
Study on Damage Constitutive Model of Rock under Freeze-Thaw-Confining Pressure-Acid Erosion
by Youliang Chen, Peng Xiao, Xi Du, Suran Wang, Tomas Manuel Fernandez-Steeger and Rafig Azzam
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(20), 9431; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11209431 - 11 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1421
Abstract
Aiming at the acid-etched freeze-thaw rock for geotechnical engineering in cold regions, chemical damage variables, freeze-thaw damage variables, and force damage variables were introduced to define the degree of degradation of rock materials, the law of damage evolution, the total damage variable of [...] Read more.
Aiming at the acid-etched freeze-thaw rock for geotechnical engineering in cold regions, chemical damage variables, freeze-thaw damage variables, and force damage variables were introduced to define the degree of degradation of rock materials, the law of damage evolution, the total damage variable of acid-corroded rock under the coupling action of freeze-thaw and confining pressure was deduced. The continuous damage mechanics theory was adopted to derive the damage evolution equation and constitutive model of acid-eroded rock under the coupling action of freeze-thaw and confining pressure. The theoretical derivation method was used to obtain the required model parameter expressions. Finally, the model’s rationality and accuracy were verified by the triaxial compression test data of frozen-thawed rocks. Comparing the test curve’s peak point with the peak point of the model theoretical curve, the results show that the two are in suitable agreement. The damage constitutive model can better reflect the stress-strain peak characteristics of rock during triaxial compression, verifying the rationality and reliability of the model and the method for determining the model parameters. The model extends the damage model of rock under the coupling action of freeze-thaw and confining pressure in the chemical environment and further reveals the damage mechanism and failure law of acid-corroded rock under the coupling action of freeze-thaw and confining pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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17 pages, 115044 KiB  
Article
Physical Alteration and Color Change of Granite Subjected to High Temperature
by Andor Németh, Ákos Antal and Ákos Török
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 8792; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11198792 - 22 Sep 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2037
Abstract
Cylindrical specimens obtained from the monzogranite host rock of the National Radioactive Waste Repository of Hungary were tested at room temperature and 250 °C, 500 °C, and 750 °C of heat treatment. Reflectance spectra (color), bulk density, Duroskop surface hardness, and ultrasound-wave velocity [...] Read more.
Cylindrical specimens obtained from the monzogranite host rock of the National Radioactive Waste Repository of Hungary were tested at room temperature and 250 °C, 500 °C, and 750 °C of heat treatment. Reflectance spectra (color), bulk density, Duroskop surface hardness, and ultrasound-wave velocity values were measures before and after thermal stress. According to CIE L*a*b* colorimetric characteristics, the specimens’ color became brighter and yellower after the heat treatment. At 750 °C, a significant volume increase was recorded linked to the formation of macro-cracks, and it also led to the drop in bulk density. Smaller temperature treatment (250 °C) caused a minor decrease in density (−1.3%), which is higher than the reduction of density at 500 °C (−0.8%). Duroskop surface strength showed a slight decrease until 500 °C, and then a drastic decline at 750 °C. P- and S-wave velocity values tend to decrease uniformly and significantly from room temperature to 750 °C. P-wave velocity and Duroskop values have a high exponential correlation at elevated temperatures. Physical alterations originated from the differential thermal-induced expansion of minerals, the formation of micro-cracks. Mineralogical changes at higher temperatures also contribute to the volume change and the loss in strength. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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14 pages, 3764 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling of Temperature Effect on Tensile Strength of Granitic Rock
by Timo Saksala
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4407; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11104407 - 12 May 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1454
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to numerically predict the temperature effect on the tensile strength of granitic rock. To this end, a numerical approach based on the embedded discontinuity finite elements is developed. The underlying thermo-mechanical problem is solved with a staggered [...] Read more.
The aim of this paper is to numerically predict the temperature effect on the tensile strength of granitic rock. To this end, a numerical approach based on the embedded discontinuity finite elements is developed. The underlying thermo-mechanical problem is solved with a staggered method marching explicitly in time while using extreme mass scaling, allowed by the quasi-static nature of the slow heating of a rock sample to a uniform target temperature, to increase the critical time step. Linear triangle elements are used to implement the embedded discontinuity kinematics with two intersecting cracks in a single element. It is assumed that the quartz mineral, with its strong and anomalous temperature dependence upon approaching the α-β transition at the Curie point (~573 °C), in granitic rock is the major factor resulting in thermal cracking and the consequent degradation of tensile strength. Accordingly, only the thermal expansion coefficient of quartz depends on temperature in the present approach. Moreover, numerically, the rock is taken as isotropic except for the tensile strength, which is unique for each mineral in a rock. In the numerical simulations mimicking the experimental setup on granitic numerical rock samples consisting of quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals, the sample is first heated slowly to a target temperature below the Curie point. Then, a uniaxial tension test is numerically performed on the cooled down sample. The simulations demonstrate the validity of the proposed approach as the experimental deterioration of the tensile strength of the rock is predicted with agreeable accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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20 pages, 26354 KiB  
Article
Thermal Effects on the Drilling Performance of a Limestone: Relationships with Physical and Mechanical Properties
by Víctor Martínez-Ibáñez, María Elvira Garrido, Carlos Hidalgo Signes, Aniello Basco, Tiago Miranda and Roberto Tomás
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(7), 3286; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11073286 - 06 Apr 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2391
Abstract
This work evaluates the effect of high temperatures and cooling methods on the drillability of Prada limestone. Samples from boreholes drilled during the design stage of the Tres Ponts Tunnel in the Catalan south Pyrenean zone (Spain) were subjected to temperatures of 105, [...] Read more.
This work evaluates the effect of high temperatures and cooling methods on the drillability of Prada limestone. Samples from boreholes drilled during the design stage of the Tres Ponts Tunnel in the Catalan south Pyrenean zone (Spain) were subjected to temperatures of 105, 200, 300, 400, and 600 °C, and then cooled at a slow rate or by quenching. Sievers’ J-value (SJ) and brittleness (S20) were determined on thermally treated samples, and the drilling rate index (DRI) was calculated for each temperature. The results show that thermal treatment implied a sustained increase in the drillability of the rock of up to 40% at 600 °C and a change in the drillability category (from medium to high). At 600 °C, SJ and S20 tripled and doubled, respectively, the initial values obtained for the intact rock. The results were inconclusive about the influence of the cooling method on the drilling performance of Prada limestone for the tested range of temperatures. The substantial improvement observed in the drillability of Prada limestone when heated, measured in terms of DRI, could help in the development of novel thermally-assisted mechanical excavation methods. Additionally, strong correlations between drillability variables (i.e., SJ and S20) and physical and mechanical variables of Prada limestone (i.e., P- and S-wave velocities, uniaxial compression strength, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio) are proposed. Correlations will help make preliminary predictions of drillability based on properties such as uniaxial compression strength and ultrasound wave velocities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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14 pages, 517 KiB  
Article
On the Thermal Stresses Due to Weathering in Natural Stones
by William Hideki Ito, Talita Scussiato, Federico Vagnon, Anna Maria Ferrero, Maria Rita Migliazza, Jacqueline Ramis and Paulo Ivo Braga de Queiroz
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(3), 1188; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11031188 - 28 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1878
Abstract
Natural weathering is known as one of the key mechanisms causing degradation in building materials. Great efforts have been made to develop new materials and new processes for protecting those that already exist. Natural stones are an example of a natural material that [...] Read more.
Natural weathering is known as one of the key mechanisms causing degradation in building materials. Great efforts have been made to develop new materials and new processes for protecting those that already exist. Natural stones are an example of a natural material that has been extensively used for building construction since ancient times. In addition, they fit durability, aesthetic, and mechanical requirements. Thus, they still have great importance in the construction business nowadays. Though chemical interactions in natural stones, such as oxidation or hydrolyses, have been widely studied, in the last few decades, the physical weathering due to daily temperature variations has begun to be considered as a key mechanism of degradation and has been incorporated in international standards. This process is particularly important in calcitic marble slabs, where it can cause extensive damages to facades. Consequently, there are restrictive rules for the use of marble as an external coating material in many countries. In this paper, the thermal stresses induced by daily variations in temperature are calculated using geographic and meteorological information. The concept of sol-air temperature is used to estimate the temperatures of the hidden and exposed surfaces of a slab, and Fourier’s law and the theory of elasticity are used to calculate the temperature and stress distribution, respectively. The proposed methodology allows for a detailed reconstruction of the stress induced inside marble slabs using parameters commonly acquired in meteorological stations as input data. The developed methodology was validated by comparing in-situ measurements of the temperature of a building in Pescara (Central Italy). A good correlation between the theoretical and real temperatures was found; in particular, the peak tensile stresses inside the slabs were estimated at 75 kPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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23 pages, 16369 KiB  
Article
The Use of Infrared Thermography on the Measurement of Microstructural Changes of Reservoir Rocks Induced by Temperature
by Thomas Junique, Patricia Vazquez, Céline Thomachot-Schneider, Issra Hassoun, Mirlène Jean-Baptiste and Yves Géraud
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(2), 559; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11020559 - 08 Jan 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2178
Abstract
A variation of temperature produces a change in the microstructure of the rock due to the mineral thermal expansion and its residual strain. Depending on the temperature cycle and texture, microstresses may lead to the development of preexistent cracks or the creation of [...] Read more.
A variation of temperature produces a change in the microstructure of the rock due to the mineral thermal expansion and its residual strain. Depending on the temperature cycle and texture, microstresses may lead to the development of preexistent cracks or the creation of a new and irreversible cracking. The effect of temperature on reservoir rocks is an important topic since it conditions the permeability and the fluid flow. Two main questions arise from this: the first is if an irreversible cracking threshold is attained in the reservoir rocks at low temperature geothermal systems (around 100 °C); the second one is about the influence of thermal fatigue by the repetition of heating–cooling cycles on the different rock types. To answer these questions, four reservoir rocks (chalk, sandstone, fresh granite, and weathered granite) were submitted to two different thermal regimes. The first test was conceived to detect the irreversible cracking threshold, and for that, the rocks were submitted to progressive heating (90°, 100°, 110°, 120°, and 130 °C). The second test consisted of doing cycles of fast heating of the samples up to 200 °C. The microstructure variation was assessed by means of a scanning electron microscope, mercury porosimetry, and capillary water uptake combined with passive infrared thermography. Infrared thermography is an emerging tool in the field of rock study, used to detect water masses or determine thermal properties. The water transfer during the capillary tests of the rocks, before and after the tests, was monitored with this technique. In addition, the cooling rate index, a non-destructive parameter to detect cracking development, was calculated. The results made it possible to differentiate the behaviours in relation to the rock type, with a chalk and a weathered granite less susceptible to thermal stresses than a fresh granite and sandstone. In addition, infrared thermography resulted in being a very useful indirect technique to detect the changes on the surface, although they do not always correlate to the bulk microstructural changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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Review

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25 pages, 10785 KiB  
Review
Effects of Wildfire on Rockfall Occurrence: A Review through Actual Cases in Spain
by Roberto Sarro, Ignacio Pérez-Rey, Roberto Tomás, Leandro R. Alejano, Luis Enrique Hernández-Gutiérrez and Rosa María Mateos
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(6), 2545; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11062545 - 12 Mar 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3562
Abstract
Understanding processes and conditions that lead to rockfalls during and after a wildfire in different geological contexts is crucial since this phenomenon is one of the major hazards in mountainous regions across Europe. Spain is one of the European countries with the highest [...] Read more.
Understanding processes and conditions that lead to rockfalls during and after a wildfire in different geological contexts is crucial since this phenomenon is one of the major hazards in mountainous regions across Europe. Spain is one of the European countries with the highest rate of wildfires, and rockfalls cause high economic and social impact, with many fatalities every year. The increase of rockfalls during and after wildfires is connected with the merging of different factors, not only in the detached area but also in the propagation and potentially affected area. When wildfire occurred, many actions take place: changes in the mechanical conditions of the rocks, the loss of protective capacity from vegetation, the effect induced by firefighting activities and/or the impact by the high temperatures in the adopted protective measures. After the wildfire, there is an increase in frequency and intensity of rockfalls in the burned area, causing a major impact of rockfalls on not only road networks and built-up areas but also people living. Additionally, the removal of vegetation by wildfires causes an increase in the risk perception, related not only to detached blocks but also to the general appearance of the rock mass. In this review, the main factors that influence the occurrence of rockfalls after a wildfire are analyzed, and three actual case studies in Spain are presented to support the variety of conclusions obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Temperature on Rock and Rock Masses)
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