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Applied Sciences
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Standalone Renewable Energy System—Modeling and Controlling - Ⅱ
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Standalone Renewable Energy System—Modeling and Controlling - Ⅱ

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 July 2021) | Viewed by 6162

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Rodolfo Dufo-López

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Zaragoza, Calle María de Luna, 3, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
Interests: renewable energy; electricity storage; advanced batteries models; net metering; energy management; optimization algorithms
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Standalone (off-grid) renewable energy systems supply electricity in places where there is no access to the standard electrical grid. These systems can include photovoltaic generators, wind turbines, hydro turbines, or any other renewable electrical generator. Usually, this kind of systems includes electricity storage (commonly, lead-acid batteries, but also other types of storage such as lithium batteries, other battery technologies, supercapacitors, and hydrogen). In some cases, a backup generator (usually powered by fossil fuel) is part of the hybrid system.  

The modelling of the components, the control of the system, and the simulation of the performance of the whole system is necessary to evaluate the system technically and economically. The optimization of the sizing and/or the control is also an important task in this kind of system.  

Taking into account all the above, this Special Issue is dedicated to any topic related to “Standalone Renewable Energy Systems”, including modelling, control, sizing, simulation, and optimization, considering both technical and economic aspects.

Prof. Dr. Rodolfo Dufo-López
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • standalone renewable systems
  • photovoltaic
  • wind
  • electricity storage
  • batteries
  • backup generator
  • modelling
  • control
  • simulation
  • optimization

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 181 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue on Standalone Renewable Energy System: Modeling and Controlling
by Rodolfo Dufo-López and José L. Bernal-Agustín
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(6), 2068; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10062068 - 19 Mar 2020
Viewed by 1398
Abstract
Standalone (off-grid) renewable energy systems supply electricity in places where there is no access to a standard electrical grid [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

27 pages, 3778 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Economic Performance of Lead-Acid and Li-Ion Batteries in Standalone Photovoltaic Energy Systems
by Javier Carroquino, Cristina Escriche-Martínez, Luis Valiño and Rodolfo Dufo-López
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3587; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11083587 - 16 Apr 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2603
Abstract
Standalone renewable energy systems usually incorporate batteries to get a steady energy supply. Currently, Li-ion batteries are gradually displacing lead-acid ones. In practice, the choice is made without previous comparison of its profitability in each case. This work compares the economic performance of [...] Read more.
Standalone renewable energy systems usually incorporate batteries to get a steady energy supply. Currently, Li-ion batteries are gradually displacing lead-acid ones. In practice, the choice is made without previous comparison of its profitability in each case. This work compares the economic performance of both types of battery, in five real case studies with different demand profiles. For each case, two sets of simulations are carried out. In one of the sets, the energy demand is supplied by a standalone photovoltaic system and, in the other one, by a standalone hybrid photovoltaic-diesel system. Through optimization processes, the economic optimum solutions are obtained. In addition, sensitivity analyses on various parameters have been carried out, seeking the influence in favor of one or another type of battery. The results show that if the type of battery is changed, to achieve the economic optimum the entire system must be resized. In some cases, the economic optimum is reached with Li-ion and in others with lead-acid batteries, depending on the demand profiles. Thus, both types of batteries can be profitable options in standalone energy systems, with a greater tendency to lead-acid in fully photovoltaic systems and to Li-ion in hybrids. The price reductions that would make Li-ion the only choice is quantified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy System—Modeling and Controlling - Ⅱ)
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15 pages, 380 KiB  
Article
A Mixed-Integer Convex Model for the Optimal Placement and Sizing of Distributed Generators in Power Distribution Networks
by Walter Gil-González, Alejandro Garces, Oscar Danilo Montoya and Jesus C. Hernández
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(2), 627; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app11020627 - 11 Jan 2021
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 2771
Abstract
The optimal placement and sizing of distributed generators is a classical problem in power distribution networks that is usually solved using heuristic algorithms due to its high complexity. This paper proposes a different approach based on a mixed-integer second-order cone programming (MI-SOCP) model [...] Read more.
The optimal placement and sizing of distributed generators is a classical problem in power distribution networks that is usually solved using heuristic algorithms due to its high complexity. This paper proposes a different approach based on a mixed-integer second-order cone programming (MI-SOCP) model that ensures the global optimum of the relaxed optimization model. Second-order cone programming (SOCP) has demonstrated to be an efficient alternative to cope with the non-convexity of the power flow equations in power distribution networks. Of relatively new interest to the power systems community is the extension to MI-SOCP models. The proposed model is an approximation. However, numerical validations in the IEEE 33-bus and IEEE 69-bus test systems for unity and variable power factor confirm that the proposed MI-SOCP finds the best solutions reported in the literature. Being an exact technique, the proposed model allows minimum processing times and zero standard deviation, i.e., the same optimum is guaranteed at each time that the MI-SOCP model is solved (a significant advantage in comparison to metaheuristics). Additionally, load and photovoltaic generation curves for the IEEE 69-node test system are included to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed MI-SOCP to solve the problem of the optimal location and sizing of renewable generators using the multi-period optimal power flow formulation. Therefore, the proposed MI-SOCP also guarantees the global optimum finding, in contrast to local solutions achieved with mixed-integer nonlinear programming solvers available in the GAMS optimization software. All the simulations were carried out via MATLAB software with the CVX package and Gurobi solver. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy System—Modeling and Controlling - Ⅱ)
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20 pages, 6968 KiB  
Article
Development of a DSP Microcontroller-Based Fuzzy Logic Controller for Heliostat Orientation Control
by Eugenio Salgado-Plasencia, Roberto V. Carrillo-Serrano and Manuel Toledano-Ayala
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(5), 1598; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app10051598 - 28 Feb 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2942
Abstract
This paper describes the design and implementation of a heliostat orientation control system based on a low-cost microcontroller. The proposed system uses a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) with the Center of Sums defuzzification method embedded on a dsPIC33EP256MU806 Digital Signal Processor (DSP), in [...] Read more.
This paper describes the design and implementation of a heliostat orientation control system based on a low-cost microcontroller. The proposed system uses a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) with the Center of Sums defuzzification method embedded on a dsPIC33EP256MU806 Digital Signal Processor (DSP), in order to modify the orientation of a heliostat by controlling the angular position of two DC motors connected to the axes of the heliostat. The FLC is compared to a traditional Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller to evaluate the performance of the system. Both the FLC and PID controller were designed for the position control of the heliostat DC motors at no load, and then they were implemented in the orientation control of the heliostat using the same controller parameters. The experimental results show that the FLC has a better performance and flexibility than a traditional PID controller in the orientation control of a heliostat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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30 pages, 20609 KiB  
Article
Day-Ahead Optimal Battery Operation in Islanded Hybrid Energy Systems and Its Impact on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
by Juan M. Lujano-Rojas, José M. Yusta, Jesús Sergio Artal-Sevil and José Antonio Domínguez-Navarro
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(23), 5221; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9235221 - 30 Nov 2019
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1944
Abstract
This paper proposes a management strategy for the daily operation of an isolated hybrid energy system (HES) using heuristic techniques. Incorporation of heuristic techniques to the optimal scheduling in day-head basis allows us to consider the complex characteristics of a specific battery energy [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a management strategy for the daily operation of an isolated hybrid energy system (HES) using heuristic techniques. Incorporation of heuristic techniques to the optimal scheduling in day-head basis allows us to consider the complex characteristics of a specific battery energy storage system (BESS) and the associated electronic converter efficiency. The proposed approach can determine the discharging time to perform the load peak-shaving in an appropriate manner. A recently proposed version of binary particle swarm optimization (BPSO), which incorporates a time-varying mirrored S-shaped (TVMS) transfer function, is proposed for day-ahead scheduling determination. Day-ahead operation and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are studied through different operating conditions. The complexity of the optimization problem depends on the available wind resource and its relationship with load profile. In this regard, TVMS-BPSO has important capabilities for global exploration and local exploitation, which makes it a powerful technique able to provide a high-quality solution comparable to that obtained from a genetic algorithm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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20 pages, 8492 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Pitch Control of Variable-Pitch PMSG Based Wind Turbine
by Jian Chen, Bo Yang, Wenyong Duan, Hongchun Shu, Na An, Libing Chen and Tao Yu
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(19), 4109; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9194109 - 01 Oct 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2141
Abstract
This paper presents an adaptive pitch-angle control approach for a permanent magnet-synchronous generator-based wind turbine (PMSG-WT) connecting with a power grid to limit extracted power above the rated wind speed. In the proposed control approach, a designed perturbation observer is employed for estimating [...] Read more.
This paper presents an adaptive pitch-angle control approach for a permanent magnet-synchronous generator-based wind turbine (PMSG-WT) connecting with a power grid to limit extracted power above the rated wind speed. In the proposed control approach, a designed perturbation observer is employed for estimating and compensating unknown parameter uncertainties, system nonlinearities, and unknown disturbances. The proposed control approach does not require full state measurements or the accurate system model. Simulation tests verify the effectiveness of the proposed control approach. The simulation results demonstrate that compared with the feedback linearizing controller, conventional vector controller with proportional-integral (PI) loops, and PI controller with gain scheduling, the proposed control approach can always maintain the extracted wind power around rated power, and has higher performance and robustness against disturbance and parameter uncertainties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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23 pages, 1235 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimal Capacity Planning for 100% Renewable Energy-Based Microgrid Incorporating Cost of Demand-Side Flexibility Management
by Mark Kipngetich Kiptoo, Oludamilare Bode Adewuyi, Mohammed Elsayed Lotfy, Tomonobu Senjyu, Paras Mandal and Mamdouh Abdel-Akher
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3855; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9183855 - 13 Sep 2019
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3789
Abstract
The need for energy and environmental sustainability has spurred investments in renewable energy technologies worldwide. However, the flexibility needs of the power system have increased due to the intermittent nature of the energy sources. This paper investigates the prospects of interlinking short-term flexibility [...] Read more.
The need for energy and environmental sustainability has spurred investments in renewable energy technologies worldwide. However, the flexibility needs of the power system have increased due to the intermittent nature of the energy sources. This paper investigates the prospects of interlinking short-term flexibility value into long-term capacity planning towards achieving a microgrid with a high renewable energy fraction. Demand Response Programs (DRP) based on critical peak and time-ahead dynamic pricing are compared for effective demand-side flexibility management. The system components include PV, wind, and energy storages (ESS), and several optimal component-sizing scenarios are evaluated and compared using two different ESSs without and with the inclusion of DRP. To achieve this, a multi-objective problem which involves the simultaneous minimization of the loss of power supply probability (LPSP) index and total life-cycle costs is solved under each scenario to investigate the most cost-effective microgrid planning approach. The time-ahead resource forecast for DRP was implemented using the scikit-learn package in Python, and the optimization problems are solved using the Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO) algorithm in MATLAB®. From the results, the inclusion of forecast-based DRP and PHES resulted in significant investment cost savings due to reduced system component sizing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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16 pages, 7212 KiB  
Article
Global Maximum Power Point Tracking of PV Systems under Partial Shading Condition: A Transfer Reinforcement Learning Approach
by Min Ding, Dong Lv, Chen Yang, Shi Li, Qi Fang, Bo Yang and Xiaoshun Zhang
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(13), 2769; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9132769 - 09 Jul 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3136
Abstract
This paper aims to introduce a novel maximum power point tracking (MPPT) strategy called transfer reinforcement learning (TRL), associated with space decomposition for Photovoltaic (PV) systems under partial shading conditions (PSC). The space decomposition is used for constructing a hierarchical searching space of [...] Read more.
This paper aims to introduce a novel maximum power point tracking (MPPT) strategy called transfer reinforcement learning (TRL), associated with space decomposition for Photovoltaic (PV) systems under partial shading conditions (PSC). The space decomposition is used for constructing a hierarchical searching space of the control variable, thus the ability of the global search of TRL can be effectively increased. In order to satisfy a real-time MPPT with an ultra-short control cycle, the knowledge transfer is introduced to dramatically accelerate the searching speed of TRL through transferring the optimal knowledge matrices of the previous optimization tasks to a new optimization task. Four case studies are conducted to investigate the advantages of TRL compared with those of traditional incremental conductance (INC) and five other conventional meta-heuristic algorithms. The case studies include a start-up test, step change in solar irradiation with constant temperature, stepwise change in both temperature and solar irradiation, and a daily site profile of temperature and solar irradiation in Hong Kong. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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12 pages, 5505 KiB  
Article
Can Large Educational Institutes Become Free from Grid Systems? Determination of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems in Thailand
by Eunil Park, Sang Jib Kwon and Angel P. del Pobil
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(11), 2319; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9112319 - 05 Jun 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2434
Abstract
In some countries, renewable energy resources have become one of the mainstreams of energy savings and sustainable development. Thailand is one of the major countries to use renewable energy generation facilities in public buildings. In particular, public educational institutes consume large amounts of [...] Read more.
In some countries, renewable energy resources have become one of the mainstreams of energy savings and sustainable development. Thailand is one of the major countries to use renewable energy generation facilities in public buildings. In particular, public educational institutes consume large amounts of electricity from the grid. To reduce the electricity dependency on the national grid connection and greenhouse gas emissions, this paper introduces potential optimized solutions of renewable energy generation systems for a public university in Thailand, Chiang Mai University. Based on the simulation results from HOMER software, the potential configuration organized by PV panels, batteries and converters is proposed. The suggested configuration achieves 100% of the renewable fraction with $0.728 of the cost of energy for per electricity. Moreover, the greenhouse gas emissions are significantly reduced. Both the implications and limitations are presented based on simulation results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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27 pages, 6300 KiB  
Article
A Study of a Standalone Renewable Energy System of the Chinese Zhongshan Station in Antarctica
by Yinke Dou, Guangyu Zuo, Xiaomin Chang and Yan Chen
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(10), 1968; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9101968 - 14 May 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5310
Abstract
China has built four stations in Antarctica so far, and Zhongshan Station is the largest station among them. Continuous power supply for manned stations mainly relies on fuel. With the gradual increase in energy demand at the station and cost of fuel traffic [...] Read more.
China has built four stations in Antarctica so far, and Zhongshan Station is the largest station among them. Continuous power supply for manned stations mainly relies on fuel. With the gradual increase in energy demand at the station and cost of fuel traffic from China to Zhongshan station in Antarctica, reducing fuel consumption and increasing green energy utilization are urgent problems. This research considers a standalone renewable energy system. The polar environments and renewable energy distribution of area of Zhongshan station are analyzed. The physical model, operation principle, and mathematical modeling of the proposed power system were designed. Low-temperature performance and state of charge (SOC) estimation method of the lead–acid battery were comprehensively tested and evaluated. A temperature control strategy was adopted to prevent the battery from low-temperature loss of the battery capacity. Energy management strategy of the power system was proposed by designing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control strategies for wind turbine and PV array. The whole power system is broadly composed of a power generator (wind turbine and PV array), an uploading circuit, a three-phase rectifier bridge, an interleaved Buck circuit, a DC/DC conversion circuit, a switch circuit, a power supply circuit, an amplifier, a driver circuit, a voltage and current monitoring, a load, battery units and a control system. A case study in Antarctica was applied and can examine the technical feasibility of the proposed system. The results of the case study reveal that the scheme of standalone renewable energy system can satisfy the power demands of Zhongshan Station in normal operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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Review

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28 pages, 1223 KiB  
Review
Energy Management in Microgrids with Renewable Energy Sources: A Literature Review
by Yimy E. García Vera, Rodolfo Dufo-López and José L. Bernal-Agustín
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3854; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/app9183854 - 13 Sep 2019
Cited by 216 | Viewed by 13300
Abstract
Renewable energy sources have emerged as an alternative to meet the growing demand for energy, mitigate climate change, and contribute to sustainable development. The integration of these systems is carried out in a distributed manner via microgrid systems; this provides a set of [...] Read more.
Renewable energy sources have emerged as an alternative to meet the growing demand for energy, mitigate climate change, and contribute to sustainable development. The integration of these systems is carried out in a distributed manner via microgrid systems; this provides a set of technological solutions that allows information exchange between the consumers and the distributed generation centers, which implies that they need to be managed optimally. Energy management in microgrids is defined as an information and control system that provides the necessary functionality, which ensures that both the generation and distribution systems supply energy at minimal operational costs. This paper presents a literature review of energy management in microgrid systems using renewable energies, along with a comparative analysis of the different optimization objectives, constraints, solution approaches, and simulation tools applied to both the interconnected and isolated microgrids. To manage the intermittent nature of renewable energy, energy storage technology is considered to be an attractive option due to increased technological maturity, energy density, and capability of providing grid services such as frequency response. Finally, future directions on predictive modeling mainly for energy storage systems are also proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Standalone Renewable Energy Systems—Modeling and Controlling)
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