Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering

A special issue of Biomedicines (ISSN 2227-9059). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomedical Engineering and Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 November 2022) | Viewed by 21357

Special Issue Editors

Biosensors for Bioengineering Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Baldiri I Reixac, 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: cell sources; genetic tools; biomechanics; novel chemistries; self-assembly; structures; 3D printing; nanotechnology
Biosensors for Bioengineering Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology C/Baldiri Reixac, 10-12, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: muscular dystrophies; skeletal muscle tissue engineering; organs-on-chip; drug development; antisense oligonucleotides; gene therapy; microRNAs; splicing
1. Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri I Reixac, 10-12, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
2. ICREA-Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: biosensors; electrochemistry; nanotechnology; flow techniques; peptides and proteins; enzymatic reactions; total synthesis; biomaterials; cell culture; tissue culture

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Tissue engineering addresses the fabrication of functional three-dimensional structures that resemble the native organ. It is a transversal field that includes engineered cells, and engineered tissues, aiming to re-create, replace, and restore a whole or partial organ. As a dynamic field, tissue engineering is constantly evolving and integrating new areas of research such as nanotechnology and 3D-printing.

According to the PubMed database, over 150 000 papers on tissue engineering were published in the last 30 years. However, few of the proposed solutions ended in real-world applications. Many projects suffer from technical limitations such as the inability to reproduce native mechanical properties, cellular complexity, safety, and the lifespan of the tissue engineering products. With the right feedback and investors, it is possible to ensure that promising ideas have clinical application. The aim of this Special Issue is to provide more visibility to proof-of-concept studies in order to receive feedback from the scientific community.

Targeting cutting-edge research in tissue engineering may help find new ways to tackle important health conditions in term of their diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

The Special Issue is open for submissions of basic to clinical research, or a multi-disciplinary approach, and reviews on the following topics:

  • Cell sources;
  • Genetic tools;
  • Biomechanics;
  • Novel chemistries;
  • Self-assembly structures;
  • 3D printing;
  • Nanotechnology.

Dr. Francesco De Chiara
Dr. Juanma Fernández-Costa
Prof. Dr. Javier Ramón Azcón
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cell sources
  • genetic tools
  • biomechanics
  • novel chemistries
  • self-assembly
  • structures
  • 3d printing
  • nanotechnology

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

6 pages, 210 KiB  
Editorial
The Tissue Engineering Revolution: From Bench Research to Clinical Reality
by Francesco De Chiara, Ainhoa Ferret-Miñana, Juan M. Fernández-Costa and Javier Ramón-Azcón
Biomedicines 2024, 12(2), 453; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines12020453 - 18 Feb 2024
Viewed by 505
Abstract
At its core, tissue engineering involves the use of a scaffold for the formation of new viable tissue for medical purposes [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)

Research

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18 pages, 3768 KiB  
Article
Cultured Autologous Corneal Epithelia for the Treatment of Unilateral Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency: A Case Series of 15 Patients
by Louis-Philippe Guérin, Danielle Larouche, Mohib W. Morcos, Anne Faucher, François A. Auger, Bartha M. Knoppers, Ralph Kyrillos, Richard Bazin and Lucie Germain
Biomedicines 2022, 10(8), 1958; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10081958 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1379
Abstract
Damage to limbal epithelial stem cells can lead to limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD). Current autologous treatment procedures for unilateral LSCD bear a significant risk of inducing LSCD in the donor eye. This complication can be avoided by grafting a stem cell containing [...] Read more.
Damage to limbal epithelial stem cells can lead to limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD). Current autologous treatment procedures for unilateral LSCD bear a significant risk of inducing LSCD in the donor eye. This complication can be avoided by grafting a stem cell containing cultured autologous corneal epithelium (CACE). The primary objective of this study was to demonstrate the safety of CACE grafted on eyes with LSCD. The secondary objective was to assess the efficacy of a CACE graft in restoring a self-renewing corneal surface with adequate anatomic structures, as well as improving the best corrected visual acuity (BCVA). Fifteen patients were grafted with a CACE on a fibrin gel produced from a 3 mm2 limbal biopsy harvested from the donor eye. Data were collected at baseline and after grafting. Follow-ups from 1 to 5 years were conducted. No major adverse events related to the CACE graft were observed. For every visit, an anatomic score based on corneal opacity as well as central vascularization and a functional score based on BCVA were determined. Safety was demonstrated by the low occurrence of complications. Anatomical (93%) and functional (47%) results are promising for improving vision in LSCD patients. Combined functional success and partial success rates with inclusion of BCVA were 53% [CI95: 27–79%] one year after CACE grafting. At the last follow-up, 87% [CI95: 60–98%] of the patients had attained corneal clarity. The outcomes demonstrate the safety of our technique and are promising regarding the efficacy of CACE in these patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 12004 KiB  
Article
A 3D Analysis of Cleared Human Melanoma
by Vicente Llorente, Daniel Sanderson, Alejandro Martín-Gorgojo, Rafael Samaniego, Manuel Desco and María Victoria Gómez-Gaviro
Biomedicines 2022, 10(7), 1580; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10071580 - 02 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1588
Abstract
Cutaneous melanoma is one of the most aggressive and deadliest cancers in human beings due to its invasiveness and other factors. Histopathological analysis is crucial for a proper diagnosis. Optical tissue clearing is a novel field that allows 3D image acquisition of large-scale [...] Read more.
Cutaneous melanoma is one of the most aggressive and deadliest cancers in human beings due to its invasiveness and other factors. Histopathological analysis is crucial for a proper diagnosis. Optical tissue clearing is a novel field that allows 3D image acquisition of large-scale biological tissues. Optical clearing and immunolabeling for 3D fluorescence imaging has yet to be extensively applied to melanoma. In the present manuscript, we establish, for the first time, an optical clearing and immunostaining procedure for human melanoma and human cell line-derived melanoma xenograft models using the CUBIC (clear, unobstructed brain imaging cocktails) technique. We have successfully cleared the samples and achieved 3D volumetric visualization of the tumor microenvironment, vasculature, and cell populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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21 pages, 6828 KiB  
Article
Primary MSCs for Personalized Medicine: Ethical Challenges, Isolation and Biocompatibility Evaluation of 3D Electrospun and Printed Scaffolds
by Andrei Marian Feier, Diana Portan, Doina Ramona Manu, Vassilis Kostopoulos, Athanasios Kotrotsos, Gabriela Strnad, Minodora Dobreanu, Andreea Salcudean and Tiberiu Bataga
Biomedicines 2022, 10(7), 1563; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10071563 - 30 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1617
Abstract
Autologous cell therapy uses patients’ own cells to deliver precise and ideal treatment through a personalized medicine approach. Isolation of patients’ cells from residual tissue extracted during surgery involves specific planning and lab steps. In the present manuscript, a path from isolation to [...] Read more.
Autologous cell therapy uses patients’ own cells to deliver precise and ideal treatment through a personalized medicine approach. Isolation of patients’ cells from residual tissue extracted during surgery involves specific planning and lab steps. In the present manuscript, a path from isolation to in vitro research with human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) obtained from residual bone tissues is described as performed by a medical unit in collaboration with a research center. Ethical issues have been addressed by formulating appropriate harvesting protocols according to European regulations. Samples were collected from 19 patients; 10 of them were viable and after processing resulted in MSCs. MSCs were further differentiated in osteoblasts to investigate the biocompatibility of several 3D scaffolds produced by electrospinning and 3D printing technologies; traditional orthopedic titanium and nanostructured titanium substrates were also tested. 3D printed scaffolds proved superior compared to other substrates, enabling significantly improved response in osteoblast cells, indicating that their biomimetic structure and properties make them suitable for synthetic tissue engineering. The present research is a proof of concept that describes the process of primary stem cells isolation for in vitro research and opens avenues for the development of personalized cell platforms in the case of patients with orthopedic trauma. The demonstration model has promising perspectives in personalized medicine practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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16 pages, 3860 KiB  
Article
Cytotoxicity, Epidermal Barrier Function and Cytokine Evaluation after Antiseptic Treatment in Bioengineered Autologous Skin Substitute
by Marta García-Valdivia, María I. Quiñones-Vico, Laura Ortega-Llamas, Ana Fernández-González, Ana Ubago-Rodríguez, Raquel Sanabria-de la Torre and Salvador Arias-Santiago
Biomedicines 2022, 10(6), 1453; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10061453 - 19 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1976
Abstract
Bioengineered autologous skin substitutes (BASS) technology is an emerging field for skin burn therapy. However, further studies on BASS characterization, viability against standard procedures for wound healing, and protocol optimization are necessary for the improvement of BASS technology for clinical use. The aim [...] Read more.
Bioengineered autologous skin substitutes (BASS) technology is an emerging field for skin burn therapy. However, further studies on BASS characterization, viability against standard procedures for wound healing, and protocol optimization are necessary for the improvement of BASS technology for clinical use. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of common antiseptics for clinical use in BASS, focusing on cell viability, inflammatory cytokine pattern, and epithelium and skin barrier integrity, in order to establish the most adequate treatment for wound care after BASS grafting. Human keratinocytes (hKT) and dermal fibroblasts (hDF) were isolated from foreskin samples and integrated into hyaluronic acid-based BASS. The following antiseptics were applied every 48 h: ethanol (70%), chlorhexidine digluconate (1%), sodium hypochlorite (0.02%), povidone iodine (100 mg/mL), and polyhexanide (0.1%), during a follow-up of 16 days. Sodium hypochlorite was the only treatment that showed a high cell viability percentage throughout the evaluation time compared to other antiseptic treatments, as well as a similar cytokine secretion pattern as control BASS. No significant differences were found regarding epidermal barrier function. These findings point towards sodium hypochlorite being the least aggressive antiseptic treatment for BASS post-transplantation wound care. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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12 pages, 3186 KiB  
Article
Human Trabecular Meshwork (HTM) Cells Treated with TGF-β2 or Dexamethasone Respond to Compression Stress in Different Manners
by Megumi Watanabe, Tatsuya Sato, Yuri Tsugeno, Araya Umetsu, Soma Suzuki, Masato Furuhashi, Yosuke Ida, Fumihito Hikage and Hiroshi Ohguro
Biomedicines 2022, 10(6), 1338; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10061338 - 06 Jun 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1676
Abstract
To characterize our recently established in vitro glaucomatous human trabecular meshwork (HTM) models using dexamethasone (DEX)- or TGF-β2-treated HTM cells, (1) two-dimensional (2D) cultured HTM cells were characterized by means of the real-time cellular metabolism analysis using a Seahorse analyzer, and (2) the [...] Read more.
To characterize our recently established in vitro glaucomatous human trabecular meshwork (HTM) models using dexamethasone (DEX)- or TGF-β2-treated HTM cells, (1) two-dimensional (2D) cultured HTM cells were characterized by means of the real-time cellular metabolism analysis using a Seahorse analyzer, and (2) the effects of mechanical compression stresses toward the three-dimensional (3D) HTM spheroids were evaluated by analyzing the gene expression of several ECM proteins, inflammatory cytokines, and ER stress-related factors of those 3D HTM spheroid models. The results indicated that (1) the real-time cellular metabolism analysis indicated that TGF-β2 significantly induced an energy shift from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) into glycolysis, and DEX induced similar but lesser effects. In contrast, ROCK2 inhibition by KD025 caused a substantial reverse energy shift from glycolysis into OXPHOS. (2) Upon direct compression stresses toward the untreated control 3D HTM spheroids, a bimodal fluctuation of the mRNA expressions of ECM proteins was observed for 60 min, that is, initial significant upregulation (0–10 min) and subsequent downregulation (10–30 min) followed by another upregulation (30–60 min); those of inflammatory cytokines and ER stress-related factors were also bimodally changed. However, such compression stresses for 30 min toward TGF-β2- or DEX-treated 3D HTM spheroids induced downregulation of most of those of inflammatory cytokines and ER stress-related factors in addition to upregulation of COL1 and downregulation of FN. The findings presented herein indicate that (1) OXPHOS of the HTM cells was decreased or increased by TGF-β2 or DEX stimulation or ROCK2 inhibition, and (2) mechanical compression stresses toward 3D HTM spheroids may replicate acute, subacute, and chronic HTM models affected by elevated intraocular pressures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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10 pages, 2304 KiB  
Article
Establishment of a Tissue-Mimicking Surrogate for Pulmonary Lesions to Improve the Development of RFA Instruments and Algorithms
by Louisa Bühler, Markus D. Enderle, Nicolas Kahn, Markus Polke, Marc A. Schneider, Claus Peter Heußel, Felix J. F. Herth and Walter Linzenbold
Biomedicines 2022, 10(5), 1100; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10051100 - 10 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2816
Abstract
(1) Development of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) systems for pulmonary lesions is restricted by availability of human tumor specimens and limited comparability of animal tissue. We aimed to develop a new surrogate tissue overcoming these drawbacks. (2) Reference values for electrical impedance in lung [...] Read more.
(1) Development of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) systems for pulmonary lesions is restricted by availability of human tumor specimens and limited comparability of animal tissue. We aimed to develop a new surrogate tissue overcoming these drawbacks. (2) Reference values for electrical impedance in lung tumor tissue were collected during routine lung tumor RFA (n = 10). Subsequently, a tissue-mimicking surrogate with comparable electrical impedance and facilitating detection of the ablation margins was developed. (3) The mean electrical impedance for all patients was 103.5 ± 14.7 Ω. In the optimized surrogate tissue model consisting of 68% agar solution, 23% egg yolk, 9% thermochromic ink, and variable amounts of sodium chloride, the mean electrical impedance was adjustable from 74.3 ± 0.4 Ω to 183.2 ± 5.6 Ω and was a function (y = 368.4x + 175.2; R2 = 0.96; p < 0.001) of sodium chloride concentration (between 0 and 0.3%). The surrogate tissue achieved sufficient dimensional stability, and sample cuts revealed clear margins of color change for temperatures higher 60 °C. (4) The tissue-mimicking surrogate can be adapted to lung tumor with respect to its electrical properties. As the surrogate tissue allows for simple and cost-effective manufacturing, it is suitable for extensive laboratory testing of RFA systems for pulmonary ablation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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22 pages, 3674 KiB  
Article
Fatty Hepatocytes Induce Skeletal Muscle Atrophy In Vitro: A New 3D Platform to Study the Protective Effect of Albumin in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver
by Francesco De Chiara, Ainhoa Ferret-Miñana, Juan M. Fernández-Costa, Alice Senni, Rajiv Jalan and Javier Ramón-Azcón
Biomedicines 2022, 10(5), 958; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10050958 - 21 Apr 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2514
Abstract
The liver neutralizes endogenous and exogenous toxins and metabolites, being metabolically interconnected with many organs. Numerous clinical and experimental studies show a strong association between Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and loss of skeletal muscle mass known as sarcopenia. Liver transplantation solves the [...] Read more.
The liver neutralizes endogenous and exogenous toxins and metabolites, being metabolically interconnected with many organs. Numerous clinical and experimental studies show a strong association between Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and loss of skeletal muscle mass known as sarcopenia. Liver transplantation solves the hepatic-related insufficiencies, but it is unable to revert sarcopenia. Knowing the mechanism(s) by which different organs communicate with each other is crucial to improve the drug development that still relies on the two-dimensional models. However, those models fail to mimic the pathological features of the disease. Here, both liver and skeletal muscle cells were encapsulated in gelatin methacryloyl and carboxymethylcellulose to recreate the disease’s phenotype in vitro. The 3D hepatocytes were challenged with non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) inducing features of Non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) such as lipid accumulation, metabolic activity impairment and apoptosis. The 3D skeletal muscle tissues incubated with supernatant from fatty hepatocytes displayed loss of maturation and atrophy. This study demonstrates the connection between the liver and the skeletal muscle in NAFL, narrowing down the players for potential treatments. The tool herein presented was employed as a customizable 3D in vitro platform to assess the protective effect of albumin on both hepatocytes and myotubes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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22 pages, 5628 KiB  
Article
Fibrin, Bone Marrow Cells and Macrophages Interactively Modulate Cardiomyoblast Fate
by Inês Borrego, Aurélien Frobert, Guillaume Ajalbert, Jérémy Valentin, Cyrielle Kaltenrieder, Benoît Fellay, Michael Stumpe, Stéphane Cook, Joern Dengjel and Marie-Noëlle Giraud
Biomedicines 2022, 10(3), 527; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10030527 - 23 Feb 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1826
Abstract
Interactions between macrophages, cardiac cells and the extracellular matrix are crucial for cardiac repair following myocardial infarction (MI). We hypothesized that cell-based treatments might modulate these interactions. After validating that bone marrow cells (BMC) associated with fibrin lowered the infarct extent and improved [...] Read more.
Interactions between macrophages, cardiac cells and the extracellular matrix are crucial for cardiac repair following myocardial infarction (MI). We hypothesized that cell-based treatments might modulate these interactions. After validating that bone marrow cells (BMC) associated with fibrin lowered the infarct extent and improved cardiac function, we interrogated the influence of fibrin, as a biologically active scaffold, on the secretome of BMC and the impact of their association on macrophage fate and cardiomyoblast proliferation. In vitro, BMC were primed with fibrin (F-BMC). RT-PCR and proteomic analyses showed that fibrin profoundly influenced the gene expression and the secretome of BMCs. Consequently, the secretome of F-BMC increased the spreading of cardiomyoblasts and showed an alleviated immunomodulatory capacity. Indeed, the proliferation of anti-inflammatory macrophages was augmented, and the phenotype of pro-inflammatory switched as shown by downregulated Nos2, Il6 and IL1b and upregulated Arg1, CD163, Tgfb and IL10. Interestingly, the secretome of F-BMC educated-macrophages stimulated the incorporation of EdU in cardiomyoblasts. In conclusion, our study provides evidence that BMC/fibrin-based treatment improved cardiac structure and function following MI. In vitro proofs-of-concept reveal that the F-BMC secretome increases cardiac cell size and promotes an anti-inflammatory response. Thenceforward, the F-BMC educated macrophages sequentially stimulated cardiac cell proliferation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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Review

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18 pages, 2542 KiB  
Review
Tissue Engineering and Targeted Drug Delivery in Cardiovascular Disease: The Role of Polymer Nanocarrier for Statin Therapy
by Nunzio Montelione, Francesco Loreni, Antonio Nenna, Vincenzo Catanese, Lucia Scurto, Chiara Ferrisi, Mohamad Jawabra, Teresa Gabellini, Francesco Alberto Codispoti, Francesco Spinelli, Massimo Chello and Francesco Stilo
Biomedicines 2023, 11(3), 798; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines11030798 - 06 Mar 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1870
Abstract
Atherosclerosis-related coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. This requires effective primary and secondary prevention in reducing the complications related to CAD; the regression or stabilization of the pathology remains the mainstay of treatment. Statins have proved [...] Read more.
Atherosclerosis-related coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. This requires effective primary and secondary prevention in reducing the complications related to CAD; the regression or stabilization of the pathology remains the mainstay of treatment. Statins have proved to be the most effective treatment in reducing adverse effects, but there are limitations related to the administration and achievement of effective doses as well as side effects due to the lack of target-related molecular specificity. The implemented technological steps are polymers and nanoparticles for the administration of statins, as it has been seen how the conjugation of drug delivery systems (DDSs) with statins increases bioavailability by circumventing the hepatic–renal filter and increases the related target specificity, enhancing their action and decreasing side effects. Reduction of endothelial dysfunction, reduced intimal hyperplasia, reduced ischemia–reperfusion injury, cardiac regeneration, positive remodeling in the extracellular matrix, reduced neointimal growth, and increased reendothelialization are all drug-related effects of statins enhanced by binding with DDSs. Recent preclinical studies demonstrate how the effect of statins stimulates the differentiation of endogenous cardiac stem cells. Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) seems to be the most promising DDS as it succeeds more than the others in enhancing the effect of the bound drug. This review intends to summarize the current evidence on polymers and nanoparticles for statin delivery in the field of cardiovascular disease, trying to shed light on this topic and identify new avenues for future studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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15 pages, 888 KiB  
Review
Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering Focused on Materials
by Takahiro Kitsuka, Rikako Hama, Anudari Ulziibayar, Yuichi Matsuzaki, John Kelly and Toshiharu Shinoka
Biomedicines 2022, 10(6), 1439; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/biomedicines10061439 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2268
Abstract
Cardiovascular-related medical conditions remain a significant cause of death worldwide despite the advent of tissue engineering research more than half a century ago. Although autologous tissue is still the preferred treatment, donor tissue is limited, and there remains a need for tissue-engineered vascular [...] Read more.
Cardiovascular-related medical conditions remain a significant cause of death worldwide despite the advent of tissue engineering research more than half a century ago. Although autologous tissue is still the preferred treatment, donor tissue is limited, and there remains a need for tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVGs). The production of extensive vascular tissue (>1 cm3) in vitro meets the clinical needs of tissue grafts and biological research applications. The use of TEVGs in human patients remains limited due to issues related to thrombogenesis and stenosis. In addition to the advancement of simple manufacturing methods, the shift of attention to the combination of synthetic polymers and bio-derived materials and cell sources has enabled synergistic combinations of vascular tissue development. This review details the selection of biomaterials, cell sources and relevant clinical trials related to large diameter vascular grafts. Finally, we will discuss the remaining challenges in the tissue engineering field resulting from complex requirements by covering both basic and clinical research from the perspective of material design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clinical Application for Tissue Engineering)
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