Review

38 pages, 1305 KiB

Open AccessReview

by Wojciech Gierlikowski and Barbara Gierlikowska

Cells 2022, 11(9), 1380; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells11091380 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3616

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression and thus act as important regulators of cellular phenotype and function. As their expression may be dysregulated in numerous diseases, they are of interest as biomarkers. What is more, attempts of modulation of [...] Read more.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression and thus act as important regulators of cellular phenotype and function. As their expression may be dysregulated in numerous diseases, they are of interest as biomarkers. What is more, attempts of modulation of some microRNAs for therapeutic reasons have been undertaken. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the influence of microRNAs on phagocytosis, which may be exerted on different levels, such as through macrophages polarization, phagosome maturation, reactive oxygen species production and cytokines synthesis. This phenomenon plays an important role in numerous pathological conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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0 pages, 1664 KiB

Open AccessReview

Trogocytosis in Unicellular Eukaryotes

by Kumiko Nakada-Tsukui and Tomoyoshi Nozaki

Cells 2021, 10(11), 2975; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10112975 - 01 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3017

Abstract

Trogocytosis is a mode of internalization of a part of a live cell by nibbling and is mechanistically distinct from phagocytosis, which implies internalization of a whole cell or a particle. Trogocytosis has been demonstrated in a broad range of cell types in [...] Read more.

Trogocytosis is a mode of internalization of a part of a live cell by nibbling and is mechanistically distinct from phagocytosis, which implies internalization of a whole cell or a particle. Trogocytosis has been demonstrated in a broad range of cell types in multicellular organisms and is also known to be involved in a plethora of functions. In immune cells, trogocytosis is involved in the “cross-dressing” between antigen presenting cells and T cells, and is thus considered to mediate intercellular communication. On the other hand, trogocytosis has also been reported in a variety of unicellular organisms including the protistan (protozoan) parasite Entamoeba histolytica. E. histolytica ingests human T cell line by trogocytosis and acquires complement resistance and cross-dresses major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I on the cell surface. Furthermore, trogocytosis and trogocytosis-like phenomena (nibbling of a live cell, not previously described as trogocytosis) have also been reported in other parasitic protists such as Trichomonas, Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, and free-living amoebae. Thus, trogocytosis is conserved in diverse eukaryotic supergroups as a means of intercellular communication. It is depicting the universality of trogocytosis among eukaryotes. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of trogocytosis in unicellular organisms, including the history of its discovery, taxonomical distribution, roles, and molecular mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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27 pages, 4335 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Comparative Review of Microglia and Monocytes in CNS Phagocytosis

by Megumi Andoh and Ryuta Koyama

Cells 2021, 10(10), 2555; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10102555 - 27 Sep 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4080

Abstract

Macrophages maintain tissue homeostasis by phagocytosing and removing unwanted materials such as dead cells and cell debris. Microglia, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), are no exception. In addition, a series of recent studies have shown that microglia phagocytose the [...] Read more.

Macrophages maintain tissue homeostasis by phagocytosing and removing unwanted materials such as dead cells and cell debris. Microglia, the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), are no exception. In addition, a series of recent studies have shown that microglia phagocytose the neuronal synapses that form the basis of neural circuit function. This discovery has spurred many neuroscientists to study microglia. Importantly, in the CNS parenchyma, not only microglia but also blood-derived monocytes, which essentially differentiate into macrophages after infiltration, exert phagocytic ability, making the study of phagocytosis in the CNS even more interesting and complex. In particular, in the diseased brain, the phagocytosis of tissue-damaging substances, such as myelin debris in multiple sclerosis (MS), has been shown to be carried out by both microglia and blood-derived monocytes. However, it remains largely unclear why blood-derived monocytes need to invade the parenchyma, where microglia are already abundant, to assist in phagocytosis. We will also discuss whether this phagocytosis can affect the fate of the phagocytosing cell itself as well as the substance being phagocytosed and the surrounding environment in addition to future research directions. In this review, we will introduce recent studies to answer a question that often arises when studying microglial phagocytosis: under what circumstances and to what extent blood-derived monocytes infiltrate the CNS and contribute to phagocytosis. In addition, the readers will learn how recent studies have experimentally distinguished between microglia and infiltrating monocytes. Finally, we aim to contribute to the progress of phagocytosis research by discussing the effects of phagocytosis on phagocytic cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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18 pages, 1798 KiB

Open AccessReview

Lymphocytes and Trogocytosis-Mediated Signaling

by Jim Reed, Madison Reichelt and Scott A. Wetzel

Cells 2021, 10(6), 1478; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10061478 - 12 Jun 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4417

Abstract

Trogocytosis is the intercellular transfer of membrane and membrane-associated molecules. This underappreciated process has been described in a variety of biological settings including neuronal remodeling, fertilization, viral and bacterial spread, and cancer, but has been most widely studied in cells of the immune [...] Read more.

Trogocytosis is the intercellular transfer of membrane and membrane-associated molecules. This underappreciated process has been described in a variety of biological settings including neuronal remodeling, fertilization, viral and bacterial spread, and cancer, but has been most widely studied in cells of the immune system. Trogocytosis is performed by multiple immune cell types, including basophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, natural killer cells, B cells, γδ T cells, and CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ αβ T cells. Although not expressed endogenously, the presence of trogocytosed molecules on cells has the potential to significantly impact an immune response and the biology of the individual trogocytosis-positive cell. Many studies have focused on the ability of the trogocytosis-positive cells to interact with other immune cells and modulate the function of responders. Less understood and arguably equally important is the impact of these molecules on the individual trogocytosis-positive cell. Molecules that have been reported to be trogocytosed by cells include cognate ligands for receptors on the individual cell, such as activating NK cell ligands and MHC:peptide. These trogocytosed molecules have been shown to interact with receptors on the trogocytosis-positive cell and mediate intracellular signaling. In this review, we discuss the impact of this trogocytosis-mediated signaling on the biology of the individual trogocytosis-positive cell by focusing on natural killer cells and CD4⁺ T lymphocytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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Graphical abstract

19 pages, 3824 KiB

Open AccessReview

Murder on the Ovarian Express: A Tale of Non-Autonomous Cell Death in the Drosophila Ovary

by Diane Patricia Vig Lebo and Kimberly McCall

Cells 2021, 10(6), 1454; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10061454 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8893

Abstract

Throughout oogenesis, Drosophila egg chambers traverse the fine line between survival and death. After surviving the ten early and middle stages of oogenesis, egg chambers drastically change their size and structure to produce fully developed oocytes. The development of an oocyte comes at [...] Read more.

Throughout oogenesis, Drosophila egg chambers traverse the fine line between survival and death. After surviving the ten early and middle stages of oogenesis, egg chambers drastically change their size and structure to produce fully developed oocytes. The development of an oocyte comes at a cost, the price is the lives of the oocyte’s 15 siblings, the nurse cells. These nurse cells do not die of their own accord. Their death is dependent upon their neighbors—the stretch follicle cells. Stretch follicle cells are nonprofessional phagocytes that spend the final stages of oogenesis surrounding the nurse cells and subsequently forcing the nurse cells to give up everything for the sake of the oocyte. In this review, we provide an overview of cell death in the ovary, with a focus on recent findings concerning this phagocyte-dependent non-autonomous cell death. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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23 pages, 20213 KiB

Open AccessReview

MERTK-Mediated LC3-Associated Phagocytosis (LAP) of Apoptotic Substrates in Blood-Separated Tissues: Retina, Testis, Ovarian Follicles

by Marina G. Yefimova, Celia Ravel, Antoine D. Rolland, Nicolas Bourmeyster and Bernard Jégou

Cells 2021, 10(6), 1443; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10061443 - 09 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3377

Abstract

Timely and efficient elimination of apoptotic substrates, continuously produced during one’s lifespan, is a vital need for all tissues of the body. This task is achieved by cells endowed with phagocytic activity. In blood-separated tissues such as the retina, the testis and the [...] Read more.

Timely and efficient elimination of apoptotic substrates, continuously produced during one’s lifespan, is a vital need for all tissues of the body. This task is achieved by cells endowed with phagocytic activity. In blood-separated tissues such as the retina, the testis and the ovaries, the resident cells of epithelial origin as retinal pigmented epithelial cells (RPE), testis Sertoli cells and ovarian granulosa cells (GC) provide phagocytic cleaning of apoptotic cells and cell membranes. Disruption of this process leads to functional ablation as blindness in the retina and compromised fertility in males and females. To ensure the efficient elimination of apoptotic substrates, RPE, Sertoli cells and GC combine various mechanisms allowing maintenance of tissue homeostasis and avoiding acute inflammation, tissue disorganization and functional ablation. In tight cooperation with other phagocytosis receptors, MERTK—a member of the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK)—plays a pivotal role in apoptotic substrate cleaning from the retina, the testis and the ovaries through unconventional autophagy-assisted phagocytosis process LAP (LC3-associated phagocytosis). In this review, we focus on the interplay between TAM RTKs, autophagy-related proteins, LAP, and Toll-like receptors (TLR), as well as the regulatory mechanisms allowing these components to sustain tissue homeostasis and prevent functional ablation of the retina, the testis and the ovaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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Graphical abstract

26 pages, 1546 KiB

Open AccessReview

Having an Old Friend for Dinner: The Interplay between Apoptotic Cells and Efferocytes

by Austin Le Lam and Bryan Heit

Cells 2021, 10(5), 1265; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10051265 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3714

Abstract

Apoptosis, the programmed and intentional death of senescent, damaged, or otherwise superfluous cells, is the natural end-point for most cells within multicellular organisms. Apoptotic cells are not inherently damaging, but if left unattended, they can lyse through secondary necrosis. The resulting release of [...] Read more.

Apoptosis, the programmed and intentional death of senescent, damaged, or otherwise superfluous cells, is the natural end-point for most cells within multicellular organisms. Apoptotic cells are not inherently damaging, but if left unattended, they can lyse through secondary necrosis. The resulting release of intracellular contents drives inflammation in the surrounding tissue and can lead to autoimmunity. These negative consequences of secondary necrosis are avoided by efferocytosis—the phagocytic clearance of apoptotic cells. Efferocytosis is a product of both apoptotic cells and efferocyte mechanisms, which cooperate to ensure the rapid and complete removal of apoptotic cells. Herein, we review the processes used by apoptotic cells to ensure their timely removal, and the receptors, signaling, and cellular processes used by efferocytes for efferocytosis, with a focus on the receptors and signaling driving this process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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18 pages, 2722 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Trogocytosis in the Modulation of Immune Cell Functions

by Kensuke Miyake and Hajime Karasuyama

Cells 2021, 10(5), 1255; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10051255 - 19 May 2021

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 12509

Abstract

Trogocytosis is an active process, in which one cell extracts the cell fragment from another cell, leading to the transfer of cell surface molecules, together with membrane fragments. Recent reports have revealed that trogocytosis can modulate various biological responses, including adaptive and innate [...] Read more.

Trogocytosis is an active process, in which one cell extracts the cell fragment from another cell, leading to the transfer of cell surface molecules, together with membrane fragments. Recent reports have revealed that trogocytosis can modulate various biological responses, including adaptive and innate immune responses and homeostatic responses. Trogocytosis is evolutionally conserved from protozoan parasites to eukaryotic cells. In some cases, trogocytosis results in cell death, which is utilized as a mechanism for antibody-dependent cytotoxicity (ADCC). In other cases, trogocytosis-mediated intercellular protein transfer leads to both the acquisition of novel functions in recipient cells and the loss of cellular functions in donor cells. Trogocytosis in immune cells is typically mediated by receptor–ligand interactions, including TCR–MHC interactions and Fcγ receptor-antibody-bound molecule interactions. Additionally, trogocytosis mediates the transfer of MHC molecules to various immune and non-immune cells, which confers antigen-presenting activity on non-professional antigen-presenting cells. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in our understanding of the role of trogocytosis in immune modulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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16 pages, 1407 KiB

Open AccessReview

Shaping of T Cell Functions by Trogocytosis

by Masafumi Nakayama, Arisa Hori, Saori Toyoura and Shin-Ichiro Yamaguchi

Cells 2021, 10(5), 1155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/cells10051155 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5311

Abstract

Trogocytosis is an active process whereby plasma membrane proteins are transferred from one cell to the other cell in a cell-cell contact-dependent manner. Since the discovery of the intercellular transfer of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules in the 1970s, trogocytosis of MHC molecules [...] Read more.

Trogocytosis is an active process whereby plasma membrane proteins are transferred from one cell to the other cell in a cell-cell contact-dependent manner. Since the discovery of the intercellular transfer of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules in the 1970s, trogocytosis of MHC molecules between various immune cells has been frequently observed. For instance, antigen-presenting cells (APCs) acquire MHC class I (MHCI) from allografts, tumors, and virally infected cells, and these APCs are subsequently able to prime CD8⁺ T cells without antigen processing via the preformed antigen-MHCI complexes, in a process called cross-dressing. T cells also acquire MHC molecules from APCs or other target cells via the immunological synapse formed at the cell-cell contact area, and this phenomenon impacts T cell activation. Compared with naïve and effector T cells, T regulatory cells have increased trogocytosis activity in order to remove MHC class II and costimulatory molecules from APCs, resulting in the induction of tolerance. Accumulating evidence suggests that trogocytosis shapes T cell functions in cancer, transplantation, and during microbial infections. In this review, we focus on T cell trogocytosis and the related inflammatory diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Phase of Phagocytosis and a Bite of Trogocytosis)

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