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Chemosensors
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Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization
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Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization

A special issue of Chemosensors (ISSN 2227-9040). This special issue belongs to the section "Nanostructures for Chemical Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2022) | Viewed by 30494

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Valerio Vignoli

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
DIISM – University of Siena, via Roma 56 – 53100 Siena, Italy
Interests: analog and digital electronic design; design, characterization, and modeling of advanced sensors for monitoring physical quantities; development of data acquisition and processing systems
Dr. Enza Panzardi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, Università degli Studi di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
Interests: physical sensors; chemical sensors; gas sensors; measurement systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent decades, a large amount of research work has been devoted to understanding the sensing mechanism of gas sensors. In most cases, e.g., metal oxide sensors, the sensing principle is understood in its essential features, but an exhaustive knowledge of their behavior has not yet been achieved in general.

Reliable chemical–physical dynamic models for gas sensors can speed up the development of the related measurement systems, allowing to replace experimental tuning with simulations and to achieve better performance. Moreover, the comparison of the model outputs with experimental data helps in general to understand the behavior of the sensors themselves, e.g., by exploring the relevance of the different mechanisms involved in sensing or assessing the validity of specific assumptions.

The development of a gas sensor dynamic model is strictly related to the techniques used for sensor characterization: from this point of view, there is a wide range of possibilities, each open to different implementations, depending on the specific sensor and operation conditions (consider, for example, temperature modulation). 

The aim of this Special Issue is to highlight recent advances in these fields, with reference to the different families of devices that can be used for gas sensing. Authors are therefore invited to submit works dealing with simulations, modeling, and characterization for resistive, electrochemical, optical, mass-variation, and any other type of gas sensors, also with reference to results obtained with new gas sensor materials. Both review articles and research papers are welcome.

Dr. Valerio Vignoli
Dr. Enza Panzardi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Chemosensors is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 5639 KiB  
Article
QCM Measurements of RH with Nanostructured Carbon-Based Materials: Part 2-Experimental Characterization
by Ada Fort, Anna Lo Grasso, Marco Mugnaini, Enza Panzardi, Lorenzo Parri, Valerio Vignoli, Cecilia Viti, Ammar Al-Hamry and Olfa Kanoun
Chemosensors 2022, 10(8), 320; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors10080320 - 10 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1495
Abstract
In this series of two papers, the humidity sensing of a carbon nanotube (CNT) network-based material is transduced and studied through quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements. To this aim, quartzes functionalized with different amounts of sensing material were realized, exposed to different humidity [...] Read more.
In this series of two papers, the humidity sensing of a carbon nanotube (CNT) network-based material is transduced and studied through quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements. To this aim, quartzes functionalized with different amounts of sensing material were realized, exposed to different humidity levels, and characterized. In this second paper, the experimental results are presented and discussed. The sensing mechanisms are elucidated exploiting the theory presented in the first paper of this series. The presented results show that the investigated material functionalization induces a large response of QCM to humidity in terms of resonant frequency even at low RH levels, with a sensitivity of about 12 Hz/%RH (at RH < 30% and room temperature and 10 ug of deposited SWCNT solution) and an increase in sensitivity in the high RH range typical of nanostructured film. Regarding the response in terms of motional resistance, a large response is obtained only at intermediate and high humidity levels, confirming that condensation of water in the film plays an important role in the sensing mechanism of nanostructured materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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13 pages, 4315 KiB  
Article
QCM Measurements of RH with Nanostructured Carbon-Based Materials: Part 1—Theory and Model
by Ada Fort, Anna Lo Grasso, Marco Mugnaini, Enza Panzardi and Valerio Vignoli
Chemosensors 2022, 10(8), 315; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors10080315 - 07 Aug 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1407
Abstract
In this series of two papers, the humidity sensing of a carbon nanotube’s (CNTs) network-based material is studied through quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors. To this aim, quartzes functionalized with different amounts of sensing material were realized, exposed to different humidity levels, and [...] Read more.
In this series of two papers, the humidity sensing of a carbon nanotube’s (CNTs) network-based material is studied through quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors. To this aim, quartzes functionalized with different amounts of sensing material were realized, exposed to different humidity levels, and characterized. In this first paper, the theoretical framework is presented, whereas the second one presents the experimental study. This paper discusses at first the water adsorption and desorption on single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) networks, and subsequently deeply investigates the behavior of QCM-based measurements. Numerical simulations based on the equivalent electrical model of the quartz were used for predicting the vibrational behavior of functionalized QCMs when exposed to different humidity levels, accounting for the effect of the different water adsorption mechanisms: chemisorption, physisorption, and capillary condensation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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21 pages, 984 KiB  
Article
Neural Network Robustness Analysis Using Sensor Simulations for a Graphene-Based Semiconductor Gas Sensor
by Sebastian A. Schober, Yosra Bahri, Cecilia Carbonelli and Robert Wille
Chemosensors 2022, 10(5), 152; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors10050152 - 21 Apr 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2496
Abstract
Despite their advantages regarding production costs and flexibility, chemiresistive gas sensors often show drawbacks in reproducibility, signal drift and ageing. As pattern recognition algorithms, such as neural networks, are operating on top of raw sensor signals, assessing the impact of these technological drawbacks [...] Read more.
Despite their advantages regarding production costs and flexibility, chemiresistive gas sensors often show drawbacks in reproducibility, signal drift and ageing. As pattern recognition algorithms, such as neural networks, are operating on top of raw sensor signals, assessing the impact of these technological drawbacks on the prediction performance is essential for ensuring a suitable measuring accuracy. In this work, we propose a characterization scheme to analyze the robustness of different machine learning models for a chemiresistive gas sensor based on a sensor simulation model. Our investigations are structured into four separate studies: in three studies, the impact of different sensor instabilities on the concentration prediction performance of the algorithms is investigated, including sensor-to-sensor variations, sensor drift and sensor ageing. In a further study, the explainability of the machine learning models is analyzed by applying a state-of-the-art feature ranking method called SHAP. Our results show the feasibility of model-based algorithm testing and substantiate the need for the thorough characterization of chemiresistive sensor algorithms before sensor deployment in order to ensure robust measurement performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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22 pages, 7715 KiB  
Article
UV-Activated NO2 Gas Sensing by Nanocrystalline ZnO: Mechanistic Insights from Mass Spectrometry Investigations
by Artem Chizhov, Pavel Kutukov, Alexander Gulin, Artyom Astafiev and Marina Rumyantseva
Chemosensors 2022, 10(4), 147; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors10040147 - 15 Apr 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2063
Abstract
In this work, the photostimulated processes of O2 and NO2 molecules with the surface of ZnO under UV radiation were studied by in situ mass spectrometry in the temperature range of 30–100 ∘C. Nanocrystalline needle-like ZnO was synthesized by decomposition [...] Read more.
In this work, the photostimulated processes of O2 and NO2 molecules with the surface of ZnO under UV radiation were studied by in situ mass spectrometry in the temperature range of 30–100 ∘C. Nanocrystalline needle-like ZnO was synthesized by decomposition of basic zinc carbonate at 300 ∘C, and the surface concentration of oxygen vacancies in it were controlled by reductive post-annealing in an inert gas at 170 ∘C. The synthesized materials were characterized by XRD, SEM, low-temperature nitrogen adsorption (BET), XPS, Raman spectroscopy, and PL spectroscopy. Irradiation of samples with UV light causes the photoabsorption of both O2 and NO2. The photoadsorption properties of ZnO are compared with its defective structure and gas-sensitive properties to NO2. A model of the sensor response of ZnO to NO2 under UV photoactivation is proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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12 pages, 2966 KiB  
Article
Design and Characterization of a Microwave Transducer for Gas Sensing Applications
by Giovanni Gugliandolo, Krishna Naishadham, Giovanni Crupi and Nicola Donato
Chemosensors 2022, 10(4), 127; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors10040127 - 29 Mar 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2143
Abstract
Gas sensors have wide applications in several fields, spanning diverse areas such as environmental monitoring, healthcare, defense, and the evaluation of personal and occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals. Different typologies of gas sensors have been proposed over the years, such as optical, electrochemical, [...] Read more.
Gas sensors have wide applications in several fields, spanning diverse areas such as environmental monitoring, healthcare, defense, and the evaluation of personal and occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals. Different typologies of gas sensors have been proposed over the years, such as optical, electrochemical, and metal oxide gas sensors. In this paper, a relatively new typology of gas sensors is explored: the microwave gas sensor. It consists of a combination of a microwave transducer with a nanostructured sensing material deposited on an interdigitated capacitor (IDC). The device is designed and fabricated on a Rogers substrate (RO4003C) using microstrip technology, and investigated as a microwave transducer over the frequency range from 1 GHz to 6 GHz by measuring the scattering (S) parameters in response to gas adsorption and desorption. The sensing material is based on a nano-powder of barium titanate oxalate with a coating of urea (BaTiO(C2O4)2/CO(NH2)2). It is deposited on the IDC surface by drop coating, thus creating a sensing film. The developed prototype has been tested toward different oxygen (O2) concentrations and exhibits a sensitivity of 28 kHz/%O2. Special attention has been devoted to the measurement process. Besides the canonical short-open-load-thru (SOLT) calibration of the measured S-parameters, a thru-reflect-line (TRL) calibration has been performed in order to get rid of the parasitic electromagnetic (EM) contributions of the board connectors and the feedlines, thus moving the measurement reference planes to the edges of the IDC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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18 pages, 3016 KiB  
Article
Flexible Impedimetric Electronic Nose for High-Accurate Determination of Individual Volatile Organic Compounds by Tuning the Graphene Sensitive Properties
by Tianqi Lu, Ammar Al-Hamry, José Mauricio Rosolen, Zheng Hu, Junfeng Hao, Yuchao Wang, Anurag Adiraju, Tengfei Yu, Elaine Yoshiko Matsubara and Olfa Kanoun
Chemosensors 2021, 9(12), 360; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9120360 - 15 Dec 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3381
Abstract
We investigated functionalized graphene materials to create highly sensitive sensors for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as formaldehyde, methanol, ethanol, acetone, and isopropanol. First, we prepared VOC-sensitive films consisting of mechanically exfoliated graphene (eG) and chemical graphene oxide (GO), which have different concentrations [...] Read more.
We investigated functionalized graphene materials to create highly sensitive sensors for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as formaldehyde, methanol, ethanol, acetone, and isopropanol. First, we prepared VOC-sensitive films consisting of mechanically exfoliated graphene (eG) and chemical graphene oxide (GO), which have different concentrations of structural defects. We deposited the films on silver interdigitated electrodes on Kapton substrate and submitted them to thermal treatment. Next, we measured the sensitive properties of the resulting sensors towards specific VOCs by impedance spectroscopy. We obtained the eG- and GO-based electronic nose composed of two eG films- and four GO film-based sensors with variable sensitivity to individual VOCs. The smallest relative change in impedance was 5% for the sensor based on eG film annealed at 180 °C toward 10 ppm formaldehyde, whereas the highest relative change was 257% for the sensor based on two-layers deposited GO film annealed at 200 °C toward 80 ppm ethanol. At 10 ppm VOC, the GO film-based sensors were sensitive enough to distinguish between individual VOCs, which implied excellent selectivity, as confirmed by Principle Component Analysis (PCA). According to a PCA-Support Vector Machine-based signal processing method, the electronic nose provided identification accuracy of 100% for individual VOCs. The proposed electronic nose can be used to detect multiple VOCs selectively because each sensor is sensitive to VOCs and has significant cross-selectivity to others. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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13 pages, 3580 KiB  
Article
Sensor-Embedded Face Masks for Detection of Volatiles in Breath: A Proof of Concept Study
by Lorena Di Zazzo, Gabriele Magna, Martina Lucentini, Manuela Stefanelli, Roberto Paolesse and Corrado Di Natale
Chemosensors 2021, 9(12), 356; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9120356 - 12 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2652
Abstract
The correlation between breath volatilome and health is prompting a growing interest in the development of sensors optimized for breath analysis. On the other hand, the outbreak of COVID-19 evidenced that breath is a vehicle of infection; thus, the introduction of low-cost and [...] Read more.
The correlation between breath volatilome and health is prompting a growing interest in the development of sensors optimized for breath analysis. On the other hand, the outbreak of COVID-19 evidenced that breath is a vehicle of infection; thus, the introduction of low-cost and disposable devices is becoming urgent for a clinical implementation of breath analysis. In this paper, a proof of concept about the functionalization of face masks is provided. Porphyrin-based sensors are among the most performant devices for breath analysis, but since porphyrins are scarcely conductive, they make use of costly and bulky mass or optical transducers. To overcome this drawback, we introduce here a hybrid material made of conducting polymer and porphyrins. The resulting material can be easily deposited on the internal surface of standard FFP face masks producing resistive sensors that retain the chemical sensitivity of porphyrins implementing their combinatorial selectivity for the identification of volatile compounds and the classification of complex samples. The sensitivity of sensors has been tested with respect to a set of seven volatile compounds representative of diverse chemical families. Sensors react to all compounds but with a different sensitivity pattern. Functionalized face masks have been tested in a proof-of-concept test aimed at identifying changes of breath due to the ingestion of beverages (coffee and wine) and solid food (banana- and mint-flavored candies). Results indicate that sensors can detect volatile compounds against the background of normal breath VOCs, suggesting the possibility to embed sensors in face masks for extensive breath analysis Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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14 pages, 3963 KiB  
Article
Tetraphenylethylene-Substituted Bis(thienyl)imidazole (DTITPE), An Efficient Molecular Sensor for the Detection and Quantification of Fluoride Ions
by Ranjith Kumar Jakku, Nedaossadat Mirzadeh, Steven H. Privér, Govind Reddy, Anil Kumar Vardhaman, Giribabu Lingamallu, Rajiv Trivedi and Suresh Kumar Bhargava
Chemosensors 2021, 9(10), 285; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9100285 - 06 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2623
Abstract
Fluoride ion plays a pivotal role in a range of biological and chemical applications however excessive exposure can cause severe kidney and gastric problems. A simple and selective molecular sensor, 4,5-di(thien-2-yl)-2-(4-(1,2,2-triphenylvinyl)-phenyl)-1H-imidazole, DTITPE, has been synthesized for the detection of fluoride ions, with detection [...] Read more.
Fluoride ion plays a pivotal role in a range of biological and chemical applications however excessive exposure can cause severe kidney and gastric problems. A simple and selective molecular sensor, 4,5-di(thien-2-yl)-2-(4-(1,2,2-triphenylvinyl)-phenyl)-1H-imidazole, DTITPE, has been synthesized for the detection of fluoride ions, with detection limits of 1.37 × 10−7 M and 2.67 × 10−13 M, determined by UV-vis. and fluorescence spectroscopy, respectively. The variation in the optical properties of the molecular sensor in the presence of fluoride ions was explained by an intermolecular charge transfer (ICT) process between the bis(thienyl) and tetraphenylethylene (TPE) moieties upon the formation of a N-H---F− hydrogen bond of the imidazole proton. The sensing mechanism exhibited by DTITPE for fluoride ions was confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopic studies and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Test strips coated with the molecular sensor can detect fluoride ions in THF, undergoing a color change from white to yellow, which can be observed with the naked eye, showcasing their potential real-world application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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14 pages, 5044 KiB  
Article
Potentiometric C2H4-Selective Detection on Solid-State Sensors Activated with Bifunctional Catalytic Nanoparticles
by Fidel Toldra-Reig and Jose Manuel Serra
Chemosensors 2021, 9(10), 274; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9100274 - 27 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1773
Abstract
This work presents a solid-state ionic-based device to selectively detect C2H4 in car exhaust gases. The sensor consists of 8YSZ as the electrolyte and two electrodes: Fe0.7Cr1.3O3/8YSZ and LSM/8YSZ. The main aim of this [...] Read more.
This work presents a solid-state ionic-based device to selectively detect C2H4 in car exhaust gases. The sensor consists of 8YSZ as the electrolyte and two electrodes: Fe0.7Cr1.3O3/8YSZ and LSM/8YSZ. The main aim of this work is to optimize the catalytic behavior of the working electrode to C2H4 and reduce cross-sensitivity toward CO and H2O. Several catalyst nanoparticles were infiltrated to tailor C2H4 adsorption and electrochemical oxidation properties while diminishing adsorption and conversion of other gas components such as CO. The infiltrated metal catalysts were selected, taking into account both adsorption and redox properties. Infiltration of Ti or Al, followed by a second infiltration of Ni, enabled the selective detection of C2H4 with low cross-sensitivity toward CO and H2O in a moist gas environment. Further insight into potentiometric C2H4 sensing is achieved by electrochemical impedance analysis of the electrodes activated with bifunctional catalysts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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12 pages, 3404 KiB  
Article
Single Nanowire Gas Sensor Able to Distinguish Fish and Meat and Evaluate Their Degree of Freshness
by Matteo Tonezzer
Chemosensors 2021, 9(9), 249; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9090249 - 03 Sep 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2244
Abstract
A non-invasive, small, and fast device is needed for food freshness monitoring, as current techniques do not meet these criteria. In this study, a resistive sensor composed of a single semiconductor nanowire was used at different temperatures, combining the responses and processing them [...] Read more.
A non-invasive, small, and fast device is needed for food freshness monitoring, as current techniques do not meet these criteria. In this study, a resistive sensor composed of a single semiconductor nanowire was used at different temperatures, combining the responses and processing them with multivariate statistical analysis techniques. The sensor, very sensitive to ammonia and total volatile basic nitrogen, proved to be able to distinguish samples of fish (marble trout, Salmo trutta marmoratus) and meat (pork, Sus scrofa domesticus), both stored at room temperature and 4 °C in the refrigerator. Once separated, the fish and meat samples were classified by the degree of freshness/degradation with two different classifiers. The sensor classified the samples (trout and pork) correctly in 95.2% of cases. The degree of freshness was correctly assessed in 90.5% of cases. Considering only the errors with repercussions (when a fresh sample was evaluated as degraded, or a degraded sample was evaluated as edible) the accuracy increased to 95.2%. Considering the size (less than a square millimeter) and the speed (less than a minute), this type of sensor could be used to monitor food production and distribution chains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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Review

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22 pages, 4206 KiB  
Review
Atomistic Descriptions of Gas-Surface Interactions on Tin Dioxide
by Stefan Kucharski and Chris Blackman
Chemosensors 2021, 9(9), 270; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9090270 - 18 Sep 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2339
Abstract
Historically, in gas sensing literature, the focus on “mechanisms” has been on oxygen species chemisorbed (ionosorbed) from the ambient atmosphere, but what these species actually represent and the location of the adsorption site on the surface of the solid are typically not well [...] Read more.
Historically, in gas sensing literature, the focus on “mechanisms” has been on oxygen species chemisorbed (ionosorbed) from the ambient atmosphere, but what these species actually represent and the location of the adsorption site on the surface of the solid are typically not well described. Recent advances in computational modelling and experimental surface science provide insights on the likely mechanism by which oxygen and other species interact with the surface of SnO2, providing insight into future directions for materials design and optimisation. This article reviews the proposed models of adsorption and reaction of oxygen on SnO2, including a summary of conventional evidence for oxygen ionosorption and recent operando spectroscopy studies of the atomistic interactions on the surface. The analysis is extended to include common target and interfering reducing gases, such as CO and H2, cross-interactions with H2O vapour, and NO2 as an example of an oxidising gas. We emphasise the importance of the surface oxygen vacancies as both the preferred adsorption site of many gases and in the self-doping mechanism of SnO2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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24 pages, 8930 KiB  
Review
Low-Dimensional Nanostructures Based on Cobalt Oxide (Co3O4) in Chemical-Gas Sensing
by Gayan W. C. Kumarage and Elisabetta Comini
Chemosensors 2021, 9(8), 197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/chemosensors9080197 - 29 Jul 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3332
Abstract
Highly sensitive, stable, low production costs, together with easy maintenance and portability, sensors are ever most demanded nowadays for monitoring and quantification of hazardous chemicals/gases in the environment. The utilization of one dimensional (1D) metal oxide nano structured chemical/gas sensors for environmental monitoring [...] Read more.
Highly sensitive, stable, low production costs, together with easy maintenance and portability, sensors are ever most demanded nowadays for monitoring and quantification of hazardous chemicals/gases in the environment. The utilization of one dimensional (1D) metal oxide nano structured chemical/gas sensors for environmental monitoring is vastly investigated because of their superior surface to volume ratio, stability, and low production costs, to provide information on the presence of chemical species. Several outstanding attempts have been pursued investigating 1D nano structures of Co3O4 over the past decades as an active material for chemical analytes detection owing to its superior catalytic effect together with its excellent stability. This article reviews the state-of-the-art of growth and characterization of Co3O4 1D nano structures and their functional characterization as chemical/gas sensors. Moreover, fundamental concepts and characteristic features, that enhance the key performances of chemical/gas sensors, are discussed. Finally, challenges and prospective for growth and fabrication of 1D Co3O4 chemical/gas sensors are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors: Simulation, Modeling, and Characterization)
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