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A special issue of Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292). This special issue belongs to the section "Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 April 2024 | Viewed by 45040

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Prof. Dr. Ho-Shin Cho

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Guest Editor

School of Electronics Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
Interests: mobile communication; underwater communication; molecular communication

Dr. Zheng Peng

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Guest Editor

Department of Computer Science, NAC 8/203, City University of New York - City College and Graduate Center, 160 Covent Avenue, New York, NY 10031, USA
Interests: wireless sensor networks; ad-hoc and mobile networks; underwater networks; networking protocol design; cross-layer optimization; modeling; implementation and experimentation; proto-type; testbed and platform design; localization and synchronization; autonomous underwater vehicle; cyber-physical system; computer architecture; embedded system; operating system

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The ocean is the heart of the planet, as it affects the planet’s climate on a global scale and provides countless resources and benefits to all of the creatures that live on Earth. The technology of underwater communications and networking can greatly enhance human’s ability to study, monitor, explore, and protect the planet’s precious aquatic environment. However, the unique characteristics under the surface of the sea present grand challenges to the development of wireless communication and networking systems, including a harsh environment, severe attenuation, multipath dispersion, Doppler shift, mobility, link and topology dynamics, and so on. In recent years, significant efforts have been made by both academia and industry to tackle these challenges. These research and development endeavors are promising novel and efficient solutions towards a better-connected underwater world.

In this Special Issue, we would like to invite domain experts to share the recent progress and original work in the research and implementation of underwater wireless communication and networking systems. The topics of interests include, but are not limited to, the following:

Underwater wireless signals: acoustics, optics, magnetic induction, electromagnetic wave, and so on;
Underwater channel modeling, estimation, and characterization;
Underwater communication physical layer solutions: synchronization, signal processing, modulation, transceiver and modem designs, link budget, and so on;
Underwater networking solutions: medium access control, routing/forwarding, reliable data transfer, congestion control, security, self-organized networking, and so on;
Underwater network and system architecture design: proto-type, testbed, and platform;
Underwater communication traffic engineering: traffic modeling, packet/circuit call management, quality of service (QoS), and so on;
Underwater communication supported by emerging IT technologies such as IoT, machine learning, cloud computing, big data, and so on;
Underwater cellular communication: channel allocation, handoff, signaling procedure, mobility management, and so on;
Underwater robotics: navigation, tracking, localization, power, communication, and networking;
Demonstration of experiment results: field trial, measurement, and case study;
Applications of underwater communication and networking systems: aquaculture, environment data collection, archeology, search and rescue, video/image streaming, AUV/UUV management, remote monitoring and control, human operator interaction, disaster detection and early warning, and so on.

Prof. Dr. Ho-Shin Cho
Dr. Zheng Peng
Guest Editors

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 7924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MMNET: A Multi-Modal Network Architecture for Underwater Networking

by Jun Liu, Jun Wang, Shanshan Song, Junhong Cui, Xiaoyu Wang and Benyuan Li

Electronics 2020, 9(12), 2186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9122186 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2451

Abstract

At present, the key to underwater sensor network (UWSN) research is to provide personalized network support for many underwater applications. In order to achieve this goal, people need a general UWSN. Most of the current UWSN architecture is based on the traditional network, which are limited to a single hardware platform and software platform. Facing the current numerous underwater applications and heterogeneous networks, the UWSN is unable to provide personalized network services according to different application requirements. In this paper, we propose a heterogeneous network framework called MMNET (multimodal network) based on the idea of multimodality, aiming to achieve the compatibility of heterogeneous networks and the scalability of the new architecture. In addition, in the face of the complexity of heterogeneous networks and the personalized needs of network applications, the resource allocation is expressed as a personalized recommendation problem. The distributed personalized recommendation algorithm is used to configure personalized network resources for applications. Each node only needs to solve its own problems, instead of exchanging channel state information by using a distributed algorithm, so the computational complexity can be greatly reduced and signaling is overhead. Finally, we give a special example to prove that our network framework provides a good application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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12 pages, 6418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tracking and Localization based on Multi-angle Vision for Underwater Target

by Jun Liu, Shenghua Gong, Wenxue Guan, Benyuan Li, Haobo Li and Jiaxin Liu

Electronics 2020, 9(11), 1871; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9111871 - 07 Nov 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2400

Abstract

With the cost reduction of underwater sensor network nodes and the increasing demand for underwater detection and monitoring, near-land areas, shallow water areas, lakes and rivers have gradually tended to densely arranged sensor nodes. In order to achieve real-time monitoring, most nodes now have visual sensors instead of acoustic sensors to collect and analyze optical images, mainly because cameras might be more advantageous when it comes to dense underwater sensor networks. In this article, image enhancement, saliency detection, calibration and refraction model calculation are performed on the video streams collected by multiple optical cameras to obtain the track of the dynamic target. This study not only innovatively combines the application of AOD-Net’s (all-in-one network) image defogging algorithm with underwater image enhancement, but also refers to the BASNet (Boundary-Aware Salient network) network architecture, introducing frame difference results in the input to reduce the interference of static targets. Based on the aforementioned technologies, this paper designs a dynamic target tracking system centered on video stream processing in dense underwater networks. As part of the process, most nodes carried underwater cameras. When the dynamic target could be captured by at least two nodes in the network at the same time, the target position could then be calculated and tracked. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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26 pages, 2560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reinforcement-Learning Based Dynamic Transmission Range Adjustment in Medium Access Control for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

by Dmitrii Dugaev, Zheng Peng, Yu Luo and Lina Pu

Electronics 2020, 9(10), 1727; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9101727 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2488

Abstract

In this paper, we propose a reinforcement learning (RL) based Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol with dynamic transmission range control (TRC). This protocol provides an adaptive, multi-hop, energy-efficient solution for communication in underwater sensors networks. It features a contention-based TRC scheme with a reactive multi-hop transmission. The protocol has the ability to adjust to network conditions using RL-based learning algorithm. The combination of TRC and RL algorithms can hit a balance between the energy consumption and network performance. Moreover, the proposed adaptive mechanism for relay-selection provides better network utilization and energy-efficiency over time, comparing to existing solutions. Using a straightforward ALOHA-based channel access alongside “helper-relays” (intermediate nodes), the protocol is able to obtain a substantial amount of energy savings, achieving up to 90% of the theoretical “best possible” energy efficiency. In addition, the protocol shows a significant advantage in MAC layer performance, such as network throughput and end-to-end delay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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22 pages, 1086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Software-in-Loop Simulation Environment for Electromagnetic Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks over STANAG 5066 Protocol

by Victor Alonso-Eugenio, Victor Guerra, Santiago Zazo and Ivan Perez-Alvarez

Electronics 2020, 9(10), 1611; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9101611 - 01 Oct 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2157

Abstract

In this work, the development of a software-in-loop platform to carry out Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (UWSN) simulations using a real-time STANAG 5066 stack is presented. The used protocol stack is part of a real-world implementation of an underwater wireless node based on ElectroMagnetic (EM) Underwater Radio Frequency Communication (EM-URFC), framed within Spanish Government’s project HERAKLES. The main objective of this work was to assess the suitability of this software-in-loop approach for carrying out realistic UWSN simulations. In addition to a detailed description of the simulation process, several simulations considering an illustrative network topology are performed, analyzing the impact of different critical parameters on the network performance. The conclusions suggest that the developed software-in-loop platform is suitable to carry out UWSN network tests using a real-world implementation of the STANAG 5066 stack. Moreover, other real-time protocol stacks may be easily adapted with minor modifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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13 pages, 5330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A VOHE System for Underwater Communications

by Yang Peng, Tomoyuki Nagase, Shan You and Toshiki Kanamoto

Electronics 2020, 9(10), 1557; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9101557 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2167

Abstract

This paper presents a new method for encrypting holographic information based on optical and acoustic signals called a Virtual Optical Holographic Encryption (VOHE) system for underwater communications that can be applicable for communications between deep submergence research vehicles. The transmission medium is composed of a combination of optical signals and acoustic signals together to form the VOHE system for transmitting system information. The optical encryption system provides essential parameters for constructing secure communications such as the propagation wavelength (λ) and focal length (f) of the Fourier lens, which are considered as keys for implementing encryption and decryption processes. An expanded RSA (ERSA) algorithm using a complex function sends system information (λ, f) as a message to a receiver. To determine accuracy of the information retrieved by the proposed technique, the minimum mean square error (MSE) was conducted to evaluate the accuracy of the received signal. The VOHE system employs virtual optical encryption system was simulated based on COMSOL Multiphysics simulation software. Finally, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) method and Pollard’s rho method were separately applied to evaluate the proposed ERSA algorithm. Obtained results showed that ERSA is able to achieve a more significant security level than RSA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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12 pages, 5817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Energy-Efficient Integration of a Digital Modulator and a Class-D Amplifier

by Muhammad Yousuf Irfan Zia, Raúl Tierno, Miguel-Ángel Luque-Nieto and Pablo Otero

Electronics 2020, 9(8), 1319; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9081319 - 16 Aug 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3147

Abstract

Energy consumption is always a key feature in devices powered by electric accumulators. The power amplifier is the most energy-demanding module in mobile devices, portable appliances, static transceivers, and even nodes used in underwater acoustic networks. These devices incorporate a modulator, typically a pulse-width modulation (PWM) and a class-D power amplifier, for higher efficiency. We propose a technique to integrate the modulator of a transmitter and PW-modulator of a class-D amplifier to improve the overall efficiency of the system. This integrated set operates as an up-converter, phase modulator (PM), and binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulator under certain conditions. The theoretical concept is verified using Matlab and a model is designed and simulated in Simulink. For validation purposes, an electronic circuit is built and tested using Multisim. The results obtained by simulations and circuit implementation show that the proposed integrated system is an energy-efficient and cost-effective solution compared to conventional techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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19 pages, 1715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Collision-Free Hybrid MAC Protocol Based on Pipeline Parallel Transmission for Distributed Multi-Channel Underwater Acoustic Networks

by Jun Zhang, Zhi Hu, Yan Xiong and Gengxin Ning

Electronics 2020, 9(4), 679; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9040679 - 22 Apr 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

The transmission rate between two nodes is usually very low in underwater acoustic networks due to the low available bandwidth of underwater acoustic channels. Therefore, increasing the transmission parallelism among network nodes is one of the most effective ways to improve the performance of underwater acoustic networks. In this paper, we propose a new collision-free hybrid medium access control (MAC) protocol for distributed multi-channel underwater acoustic networks. In the proposed protocol, handshaking and data transmission are implemented as a pipeline on multiple acoustic channels. Handshaking is implemented using the time division multiple access (TDMA) technique in a dedicated control channel, which can support multiple successful handshakes in a transmission cycle and avoid collision in the cost of additional delay. Data packets are transmitted in one or multiple data channels, where an algorithm for optimizing the transmission schedule according to the inter-nodal propagation delays is proposed to achieve collision-free parallel data transmission. Replication computation technique, which is usually used in parallel computation to reduce the requirement of communication or execution time, is used in the data packet scheduling to reduce communication overhead in distributed environments. Simulation results show that the proposed protocol outperforms the slotted floor acquisition multiple access (SFAMA), reverse opportunistic packet appending (ROPA), and distributed scheduling based concurrent transmission (DSCT) protocols in throughput, packet delivery rate, and average energy consumption in the price of larger end-to-end delay introduced by TDMA based handshaking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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17 pages, 5857 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Towards Software Based Optical Communication Methods for the Assistance of Docking Autonomous Underwater Vehicles

by Josef Grindley, Owen McAree, Muhammad Ateeq, Badr Abdullah and Frederic Bezombes

Electronics 2020, 9(4), 655; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9040655 - 16 Apr 2020

Viewed by 3133

Abstract

The use of optical communications systems is prevalent in underwater robotics when short-range data transmission is required or preferred. This paper proposes a method of producing and testing an optical communications system for use in the assistance of optical docking for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). It describes how the Simulink modelling environment was used to program and simulate a model of a transmitter, which was then implemented on a microcontroller. The transmitter model implemented on hardware was then used to produce an optical signal, which was sampled, logged and used to design a receiver model in Simulink. For signalling purposes, the experiment used a light-emitting diode (LED) with a driver circuit and photodiode based receiver. This simulated approach using real world data enabled the analysis of the system at every point during the process, allowing for a hardware in the loop style approach to be used in the receiver model design. Consequently, the Simulink Coder was used to produce the receiver model’s equivalent in C++ for later deployment. A benchmark was determined through experimentation to compare within future studies; the system was tested and found to operate effectively at distances between 1 m and 12 m in a controlled in air test environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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16 pages, 1374 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Link Misalignment in the Optical-Internet of Underwater Things

by Ruhul Amin Khalil, Mohammad Inayatullah Babar, Nasir Saeed, Tariqullah Jan and Ho-Shin Cho

Electronics 2020, 9(4), 646; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9040646 - 15 Apr 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4044

Abstract

Underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) enables high-speed links in water for the optical Internet of Underwater Things (O-IoUT) networks. O-IoUT provides various marine applications, including ocean exploration, environmental monitoring, and underwater navigation. O-IoUT typically utilizes light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and different laser diodes (LDs) such as green/blue lasers to achieve efficient data communication in the underwater environment. The high-speed optical communication is limited up to a few tens of meters due to underwater channel impairments and misalignment between the transmitter (Tx) and the receiver (Rx). UWOC provides high-speed communications only in the line of sight conditions, and a small misalignment between the Tx and the Rx can degrade the system performance. In an attempt to understand and minimize this misalignment issue, we investigate how received power in a UWOC system depends on the transmitted beam’s divergence angle. Simulation results are provided to show the effectiveness of the study by comparing the plane, Gaussian, and spherical beams. Monte Carlo simulations are utilized to determine the maximum allowable lateral offset between Tx and Rx for a given Tx divergence angle. The results provide an overview and design-based trade-off between different parameters such as lateral offset, the power received, and bandwidth of the channel. The proposed method improves not only the maximum allowed link-span but also the bandwidth of the channel for a given transmission distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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13 pages, 4239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Downlink Power Allocation Strategy for Next-Generation Underwater Acoustic Communications Networks

by Ishtiaq Ahmad and KyungHi Chang

Electronics 2019, 8(11), 1297; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics8111297 - 06 Nov 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3611

Abstract

The increasing interest in next-generation underwater acoustic communications networks is due to vast investigation of oceans for oceanography, commercial operations in maritime areas, military surveillance, and more. A surface buoy or underwater base station controller (UBSC) communicates with either transceivers or underwater base stations (UBSs) via acoustic links. Transceivers further communicate with underwater sensor nodes using acoustic links. In this paper, we employ a downlink (DL) power allocation (PA) strategy using an orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) technique for underwater acoustic communications (UAC) networks. First, we present an approach to power offsets using three kinds of pilot spacing and apply the power boosting (PB) concept on orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) symbols for the UAC network. Secondly, we draw the block error rate (BLER) curves from link-level simulation (LLS) and analyze the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for both PA and non-PA strategies. Lastly, we adopt the best PB for system-level simulation (SLS) and compare the throughput and outage performance for PA and non-PA strategies. Hence, the simulation results confirm the effectiveness of the DL PA strategy for UAC networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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10 pages, 1753 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Signaling-Free Underwater Code Division Multiple Access Scheme

by Bo-Min Seo, Junho Cho and Ho-Shin Cho

Electronics 2019, 8(8), 880; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics8080880 - 08 Aug 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3127

Abstract

In this paper, we propose an underwater code division multiple access system where each sensor node independently evaluates whether a channel is available or not without control message exchanges with a central data-gathering node named a sink. A sensor node is able to estimate how large power is currently received at a sink in the distance based on the overheard power at the node from neighbors. If the estimated power is below a certain threshold level, the sensor node is allowed to transmit data in a p-persistent manner, where the probability p depends on the available capacity. Simulation results show the traffic estimation works well as demonstrated by a success probability of approximately 100%, and the data throughput improves in most of the offered traffic region because of the removal of the control signaling related to channel allocation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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12 pages, 4086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Underwater Robot Detection System Based on Fish’s Lateral Line

by Zhijie Tang, Zhen Wang, Jiaqi Lu, Gaoqian Ma and Pengfei Zhang

Electronics 2019, 8(5), 566; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics8050566 - 22 May 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4799

Abstract

This paper introduces the near-field detection system of an underwater robot based on the fish lateral line. Inspired by the perception mechanism of fish’s lateral line, the aim is to add near-field detection functionality to an underwater vehicle. To mimic the fish’s lateral line, an array of pressure sensors is developed and installed on the surface of the underwater vehicle. A vibrating sphere is simulated as an underwater pressure source, and the moving mechanism is built to drive the sphere to vibrate at a certain frequency near the lateral line. The calculation of the near-field pressure generated by the vibrating sphere is derived by linearizing the kinematics and dynamics conditions of the free surface wave equation. Structurally, the geometry shape of the detection system is printed by a 3D printer. The pressure data are sent to the computer and analyzed immediately to obtain information of the pressure source. Through the experiment, the variation law of the pressure is generated when the source vibrates near the body, and is consistent with the simulation results of the derived pressure calculation formula. It is found that the direction of the near-field pressure source can distinguished. The pressure amplitude of the sampled signals are extracted to be prepared for the next step to estimate the vertical distance between the center of the pressure source and the lateral line. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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Review

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33 pages, 13968 KiB

Open AccessReview

Underwater Network Management System in Internet of Underwater Things: Open Challenges, Benefits, and Feasible Solution

by Delphin Raj K. M, Jinyoung Lee, Eunbi Ko, Soo-Young Shin, Jung-Il Namgung, Sun-Ho Yum and Soo-Hyun Park

Electronics 2020, 9(7), 1142; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/electronics9071142 - 14 Jul 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6045

Abstract

As oceans cover the majority of the earth’s surface, it becomes inevitable in extending the concepts of Internet of Things (IoT) to ocean bodies, thereby tiling the way for a new drift in the digital world, the Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT). The primary objective of IoUT is the creation of a network of several smart interconnected undersea things, to digitally link water bodies by using devices such as autonomous underwater vehicles. Since the traditional ideas of IoT cannot be merely expanded to underwater, due to the difference in environmental characteristics, this puts forward a variety of challenges for scientists to work with IoUT, and one such challenge is the network management with IoUT. This paper gives an overview on (1) underwater network management systems (U-NMS) using acoustic communication in IoUT; (2) the challenges and benefits and use cases of U-NMS; (3) fault, configuration, accounting, performance, security and constrained management (FCAPSC) functionalities of U-NMS and (4) a comparison between network management system in IoT and U-NMS system in IoUT. Additionally, this paper shows the prototype design and implementation setup of U-NMS in a laboratory environment, using lightweight machine to machine (LWM2M) and acoustic communication technology for IoUT. This paper will contribute much to the profit of researchers and industry players in uncovering the critical areas of the Internet of Underwater Things. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Underwater Communication and Networking Systems)

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