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Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "H1: Petroleum Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 May 2023) | Viewed by 11598

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Zacariah Hildenbrand

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Guest Editor

Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
Interests: environmental monitoring; produced water analysis; point source attribution

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I trust that you are all doing well. I would like to invite you to submit your research for publication in a Special Issue of Energies (I.F. 2.7) entitled “Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction”. This particular issue will feature original research, commentaries, and review articles that address pertinent topics in the shale energy sector. These include produced water analysis and management, flare gas mitigation and air quality monitoring, and environmental reconnaissance.

Thank you very much for your time and consideration.

Prof. Dr. Zacariah Hildenbrand
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

shale energy
hydraulic fracturing
produced water
water management
hydrocarbon mitigation
point source attribution

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 2259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Fracturing Parameters by Modified Genetic Algorithm in Shale Gas Reservoir

by Xin Zhou and Qiquan Ran

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2868; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16062868 - 20 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1188

Abstract

Shale gas reservoirs have extremely low porosity and permeability, making them challenging to exploit. The best method for increasing recovery in shale gas reservoirs is horizontal well fracturing technology. Hence, fracturing parameter optimization is necessary to enhance shale gas horizontal fracturing well production. Traditional optimization methods, however, cannot meet the requirements for overall optimization of fracturing parameters. As for intelligent optimization algorithms, most have excellent global search capability but incur high computation costs, which limits their usefulness in real-world engineering applications. Thus, a modified genetic algorithm combined based on the Spearman correlation coefficient (SGA) is proposed to achieve the rapid optimization of fracturing parameters. SGA determines the crossover and mutation rates by calculating the Spearman correlation coefficient instead of randomly determining the rates like GA does, so that it could quickly converge to the optimal solution. Within a particular optimization time, SGA could perform better than GA. In this study, a production prediction model is established by the XGBoost algorithm based on the dataset obtained by simulating the shale gas multistage fracturing horizontal well development. The result shows that the XGBoost model performs well in predicting shale gas fracturing horizontal well production. Based on the trained XGBoost model, GA, SGA, and SGD were used to optimize the fracturing parameters with the 30-day cumulative production as the optimization objective. This process has conducted nine fracturing parameter optimization tests under different porosity and permeability conditions. The results show that, compared with GA and SGD, SGA has faster speed and higher accuracy. This study’s findings can help optimize the fracturing parameters faster, resulting in improving the production of shale gas fracturing horizontal wells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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15 pages, 3067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Influence on the Determination of the Rock Matrix Bulk Modulus in Reservoir Engineering and Rock-Fluid Coupling Projects

by Dariusz Knez, Mitra Khalilidermani and Mohammad Ahmad Mahmoudi Zamani

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1769; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16041769 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 985

Abstract

This research was conducted to determine how the incorporation of different poroelastic equations would affect the measured rock matrix bulk modulus in the laboratory. To do this, three experimental methods were used to measure the matrix bulk modulus,

K_{s}

, of seven [...] Read more.

K_{s}

, of seven sandstone specimens taken from the Świętokrzyskie mine in Poland. Those experimental methods were based on the different governing equations in poroelasticty theory. The matrix bulk modulus has a substantial impact on the rock strength against external stresses. Moreover, the rock bulk modulus depends directly on two components: the pore fluid bulk modulus and matrix bulk modulus. The second one is more important as it is much higher than the first one. In this study, the accuracy of those three methods in the measurement of the matrix bulk modulus was evaluated. For this purpose, an acoustic wave propagation apparatus was used to perform the required tests. For each method, an empirical correlation was extracted between the matrix bulk modulus and the applied hydrostatic stress. In all the experiments, an exponential correlation was observed between the matrix bulk modulus and the hydrostatic stress applied on the rock. Furthermore, it was found that the incorporation of the dry bulk modulus in the calculations led to an underestimation of the matrix bulk modulus. In addition, as the hydrostatic stress was raised, the matrix bulk modulus also increased. The applied methodology can be deployed to determine the matrix bulk modulus in coupled rock-fluid problems such as reservoir depletion, hydraulic fracturing, oil recovery enhancement, underground gas storage and land subsidence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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10 pages, 2604 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

TOC/Conductivity: Surrogate Measurements Potentially Guiding Greater Utilization of Treated Produced Water

by Zacariah L. Hildenbrand, Ramon Sanchez-Rosario, Alexis Klima, Tiffany Liden and Kevin A. Schug

Energies 2023, 16(1), 206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en16010206 - 25 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1679

Abstract

Hydraulic fracturing utilizes pressurized liquid typically consisting of water, proppants, and a multitude of chemical additives, in order to fracture petroliferous strata to extract natural gas and oil. In this process, a vast amount of wastewater is produced. This water is heavily contaminated, which renders it unusable outside of direct reuse, without extensive treatment being performed. Typically, various sophisticated analytical techniques are involved in the characterization of both waste and treated waters, increasing the cost and the complexity of the management efforts. The article discusses the constituents found in oilfield wastewater, the methods used to identify and quantify these constituents, and the present management methods. Additionally, we introduce total organic carbon and conductivity analyses as surrogate measurements of overall water quality. Total organic carbon and conductivity are established bulk measurements, which can be used to facilitate rapid decisions regarding the treatment and greater utilization of flowback and produced oilfield wastes. The application of the proposed surrogates could be used to streamline the current myriad of complex and expensive measurements. This would improve operational efficiency with respect to wastewater management in the energy sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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19 pages, 11323 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate the Environmental Impacts of Hydrocarbon Production in Khuzestan Province, Iran

by Herimitsinjo Rajaoalison, Dariusz Knez and Mohammad Ahmad Mahmoudi Zamani

Energies 2022, 15(22), 8656; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15228656 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1370

Abstract

From the late 1900s onward, hydrocarbon exploitation has led to severe environmental footprints in the Khuzestan province, Iran. However, no comprehensive study has been conducted to evaluate such issues. In this research, an inclusive analysis was performed to investigate these environmental impacts. To do this, first, two datasets related to a 15-year period (2006–2021) were collated: the satellite data from the Sentinel-1 mission and the seismic data recorded by the National Iranian Geophysics Institute as well as the catalog of the global Centroid Moment Tensor project (CMT). These datasets were processed using generic mapping tools (GMT), differential synthetic aperture radar (D-InSAR) techniques, and multiple processing algorithms using a specific toolbox for oil spill application in the sentinel application platform (SNAP) programming, respectively. The results revealed three critical footprints, including regional earthquakes, land subsidence, and oil spill issues in the area. The most frequent earthquakes originated from depths less than 15 km, indicating the disturbance of the crustal tectonics by the regional hydrocarbons. Furthermore, an annual rate of land subsidence equal to 10–15 cm was observed in the coastal areas of the Khuzestan province. Moreover, two regions located in the north and west of the Persian Gulf were detected as the permanently oil-spilled areas. The applied methodology and results are quite applicable to restrict the harmful consequences of hydrocarbon production in the study area. This research will benefit not only government officials and policymakers, but also those looking to understand the environmental challenges related to oil and gas production, especially in terms of sustainable goals for the management of natural resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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21 pages, 5137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Rare Earth Element Potential in Produced and Geothermal Waters of the United States via Emergent Self-Organizing Maps

by Mark A. Engle, Charles W. Nye, Ghanashyam Neupane, Scott A. Quillinan, Jonathan Fred McLaughlin, Travis McLing and Josep A. Martín-Fernández

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4555; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15134555 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1837

Abstract

This work applies emergent self-organizing map (ESOM) techniques, a form of machine learning, in the multidimensional interpretation and prediction of rare earth element (REE) abundance in produced and geothermal waters in the United States. Visualization of the variables in the ESOM trained using the input data shows that each REE, with the exception of Eu, follows the same distribution patterns and that no single parameter appears to control their distribution. Cross-validation, using a random subsample of the starting data and only using major ions, shows that predictions are generally accurate to within an order of magnitude. Using the same approach, an abridged version of the U.S. Geological Survey Produced Waters Database, Version 2.3 (which includes both data from produced and geothermal waters) was mapped to the ESOM and predicted values were generated for samples that contained enough variables to be effectively mapped. Results show that in general, produced and geothermal waters are predicted to be enriched in REEs by an order of magnitude or more relative to seawater, with maximum predicted enrichments in excess of 1000-fold. Cartographic mapping of the resulting predictions indicates that maximum REE concentrations exceed values in seawater across the majority of geologic basins investigated and that REEs are typically spatially co-associated. The factors causing this co-association were not determined from ESOM analysis, but based on the information currently available, REE content in produced and geothermal waters is not directly controlled by lithology, reservoir temperature, or salinity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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15 pages, 5922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterizing Various Produced Waters from Shale Energy Extraction within the Context of Reuse

by Tiffany Liden, Zacariah L. Hildenbrand, Ramon Sanchez-Rosario and Kevin A. Schug

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4521; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15134521 - 21 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1402

Abstract

Environmental concerns with unconventional oil and gas development are frequently centered on elevated water usage and the induction of seismic events during waste disposal. Reuse of produced water for subsequent production well stimulation can effectively address these concerns, but the variability among such samples must be well understood. Twenty-four samples of wastewater from unconventional oil and gas development were collected from south and west Texas to assess their variability and feasibility for direct reuse. Bulk metrics were collected, including total organic carbon, total nitrogen, as well as total dissolved and suspended solids. The profiles of pertinent inorganic constituents were also evaluated. Variations were not only seen between regions but also among samples collected from the same region. For example, the average total organic carbon for Eagle Ford samples collected was 700 ± 500 mg/L, while samples collected from the Permian Basin featured an average total organic carbon concentration of 600 ± 900 mg/L. The Permian Basin total organic carbon ranged from 38 to 2600 mg/L. The total dissolved solids levels had the same variability between regions, with an average value for Eagle Ford of 20,000 ± 10,000 mg/L and a Permian Basin value of 150,000 ± 40,000 mg/L. However, samples were more reproducible within a given region. Collectively, the data indicate that the direct reuse of raw produced water for subsequent production well development without treatment is not feasible based on the reported reuse thresholds. Unconventional development wastewater samples from the Permian Basin were also compared to produced water values from conventional oil and gas wells in the same region, as reported by the United States Geological Survey. Samples collected in the Permian Basin consistently demonstrated lower ionic strength compared to conventional produced water data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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Review

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18 pages, 1597 KiB

Open AccessReview

Produced Water Treatment and Valorization: A Techno-Economical Review

by Ramon Sanchez-Rosario and Zacariah L. Hildenbrand

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4619; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15134619 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2461

Abstract

In recent years, environmental concerns have urged companies in the energy sector to modify their industrial activities to facilitate greater environmental stewardship. For example, the practice of unconventional oil and gas extraction has drawn the ire of regulators and various environmental groups due to its reliance on millions of barrels of fresh water—which is generally drawn from natural sources and public water supplies—for hydraulic fracturing well stimulation. Additionally, this process generates two substantial waste streams, which are collectively characterized as flowback and produced water. Whereas flowback water is comprised of various chemical additives that are used during hydraulic fracturing; produced water is a complex mixture of microbiota, inorganic and organic constituents derived from the petroliferous strata. This review will discuss the obstacles of managing and treating flowback and produced waters, concentrating on the hardest constituents to remove by current technologies and their effect on the environment if left untreated. Additionally, this work will address the opportunities associated with repurposing produced water for various applications as an alternative to subsurface injection, which has a number of environmental concerns. This review also uses lithium to evaluate the feasibility of extracting valuable metals from produced water using commercially available technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Analysis, Monitoring, and Optimization of Unconventional Oil and Gas Extraction)

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