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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "H: Geo-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (29 April 2022) | Viewed by 26832

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Anna Sowiżdżał

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Guest Editor

Department of Fosiil Fuels, Faculty of Geology, Geophisics and Environmental Protection, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow MP, Poland
Interests: geothermal systems; geothermal resources; petrogeothermal energy; renewable energy sources

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I would like to invite you to submit your original work to this Special Issue of Energies on “Geothermal Systems”.

Geothermal energy is one of the clean and renewable energy sources that has been used for thousands of years all over the world. Depending on the existing resources and available technologies, this kind of energy can be used for different purposes and in different ways. This variety and specificity of utilization cause geological and engineered geothermal systems to be classified differently based on their geological location, method of formation, dominant heat transfer mechanism, or availability.

This Special Issue aims to address all kinds of geothermal systems, from low to high temperature. You are encouraged to submit manuscripts analyzing the possible utilization of geothermal energy in either conventional or unconventional ways. I welcome papers related to enhanced geothermal systems, geothermal heat pumps, binary systems, geothermal district heating, or geothermal cooling systems. Papers investigating novel ways of utilizing geothermal energy as well as hybrid systems are also desirable.

I am looking forward to receiving your outstanding research.

Prof. Dr. Anna Sowiżdżał
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Geothermal systems
Geothermal energy
Enhanced geothermal systems
Geothermal heat pumps
Unconventional geothermal systems
Binary systems
Hybrid systems
Geothermal district heating
Geothermal cooling system
Low-temperature geothermal systems
High-temperature geothermal systems
Geothermal energy utilization

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 198 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Geothermal Systems—An Overview

by Anna Sowiżdżał

Energies 2022, 15(17), 6377; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15176377 - 01 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1106

Abstract

This editorial aims to summarize 10 articles (7 scientific papers and 3 review papers) that contributed to the Special Issue “Geothermal Systems—An Overview”. This Special Issue contains information on both shallow and deep geothermal systems, and analyzes geothermal resources (low and high temperature) [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

Research

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13 pages, 2598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Down-Hole Electromagnetic Heating of Deep Aquifers for Renewable Energy Storage

by Samuel O. de Almeida, Grigori Chapiro and Pacelli L. J. Zitha

Energies 2022, 15(11), 3982; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15113982 - 28 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1220

Abstract

Electromagnetic (EM) heating is an emerging method for storing renewable energy, such as photovoltaic solar and wind electric power, into aquifers. We investigate how the captured energy increases the temperature of a prototypical deep aquifer for a six-month period and then to which extent the stored energy can be recovered during the consecutive six months. Water injected at a constant flow rate is simultaneously heated using a high-frequency electromagnetic microwave emitter operating at the water natural resonance frequency of 2.45 GHz. The coupled reservoir flow and EM heating are described using Darcy’s and the energy balance equations. The latter includes a source term accounting for the EM wave propagation and absorption, modeled separately using Maxwell’s equations. The equations are solved numerically by the Galerkin least-squares finite element method. The approach was validated using EM-heating input data obtained from controlled laboratory experiments and then was applied to the aquifer. We found that after six years of alternate storage and recovery, up to 77% of the injected energy is recovered when considering realistic heat losses estimated from field data. Even when heat losses are increased by a factor of two, up to 69% of the injected energy is recovered in this case. This shows that down-hole EM heating is a highly effective method for storing renewable energies, capable of helping to solve their inherent intermittency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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31 pages, 12112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrochemical Characterization of Groundwaters’ Fluid Flow through the Upper Mesozoic Carbonate Geothermal Reservoirs in the Geneva Basin: An Evolution more than 15,000 Years Long

by Luca Guglielmetti, Michael Heidinger, Florian Eichinger and Andrea Moscariello

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3497; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15103497 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1859

Abstract

Groundwaters circulating in Upper Mesozoic carbonates are of great interest for geothermal heat production and storage applications in the Geneva area. This study aims at providing new insights and proposing new interpretations about the mineral-water reactions and the fluid-flow paths mechanisms across the Geneva Basin (GB). Data from previous studies are combined and improved by new ones collected from cold and hot springs and geothermal exploration wells in 2018 and 2020 in the framework of the GEothermies program and HEATSTORE project. Major ions, trace elements, and the isotopes of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Sulfur, Strontium, and Carbo have been analysed and the results show that the sampled waters have a meteoric origin, the carbonate aquifers act as preferential host rocks for geothermal waters, and partial contribution from the Cenozoic sediments can be observed in some samples. The Jura Mountains and the Saleve Ridge are the main catchment areas and an evolution from a pure Ca-HCO₃ footprint for the cold springs, to a Na > Ca-HCO₃ and a Na-Cl composutions, is observed at the two geothermal wells. The residence time is in the order of a few years for the cold springs and reaches up to 15–20,000 years for the deep wells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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18 pages, 3215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Criteria Studies and Assessment Supporting the Selection of Locations and Technologies Used in CO₂-EGS Systems

by Leszek Pająk, Anna Sowiżdżał, Paweł Gładysz, Barbara Tomaszewska, Maciej Miecznik, Trond Andresen, Bjørn S. Frengstad and Anna Chmielowska

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7683; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14227683 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1813

Abstract

The paper describes application of the cross-impact method in the process of selecting locations and technologies used in a geothermal system based on energy accumulated in a dry rock formation, where CO₂ is used as the working medium. The survey is based on the opinion of a group of 20 experts representing different fields of earth and technical sciences. They represent Norway and Poland, where the location of such a system is considered. Based on experts’ experience and opinions, all factors that seem to be significant were classified into the following groups: targets, key factors, results, determiners, motor and brakes, regulating factors, external factors, auxiliary factors, and autonomous factors. Direct influences between variables were indicated. Due to major differences in geological conditions in Poland and Norway, the factor of on- or offshore technology was pointed out as the primary determiner. Among key factors, the system operation’s long-term safety and level of technological readiness were indicated. As a target factor, an interest of local authority was pointed out. Among the variables that are important when selecting locations for this type of system, nine are essential: (1) Formal constraints related to local nature protection areas—this variable is essential in the case of an onshore system; (2) Availability of CO₂ sources; (3) Level of geological recognition; (4) The distance of the CO₂-EGS from a thermal energy user and electricity grid; (5) Existing wells and other infrastructure; (6) Depth of the EGS system; (7) Water depth if offshore, this variable is only important when offshore systems are involved; (8) Physical parameters of reservoir rocks; (9) Reservoir temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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34 pages, 38453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Silica Sinter and the Evolution of Hot Springs in the Alvord/Pueblo Valleys, Southeast Oregon, USA

by Leslie Allen Mowbray and Michael L. Cummings

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14217186 - 02 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2239

Abstract

Hot springs in the Alvord/Pueblo valleys in southeastern Oregon are analogous to Basin-and-Range hydrothermal systems where heat source and permeable pathways are met through crustal thinning. Silica sinter deposition at Mickey Springs, Alvord Valley, predates the late Pleistocene high stand of pluvial Lake Alvord. At Borax Lake, Pueblo Valley, sinter deposition occurred during the Holocene. This study examines the evolution of springs at Mickey Springs, where three morphologies of sinter are present: (1) basalt clasts surrounded by sinter in interbedded conglomerate and sandstone, (2) pool-edge and aprons of sinter surrounding depressions (12–32 m diameter), and (3) quaquaversal sinter mounds with pool-edge sinter. The oldest sinter occurs in silica-cemented conglomerate and sandstone, where deposition occurred prior to 30 kya. Deposition around broad depressions and mounds occurred after 30 kya but before water levels began to rise in pluvial Lake Alvord. Thermoluminescence dates suggest sinter deposition ceased before 18 kya when silt and clay filled inactive vents and buried aprons. A few mounds hosted active springs after sinter deposition ceased but while submerged in pluvial Lake Alvord. Now, high-temperature springs, steam vents, and mud pots are concentrated in a 50 × 50 m area near the southern edge of the spring area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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17 pages, 4750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Modeling of the Interference of Thermally Unbalanced Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage Systems in Brussels (Belgium)

by Manon Bulté, Thierry Duren, Olivier Bouhon, Estelle Petitclerc, Mathieu Agniel and Alain Dassargues

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6241; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14196241 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1989

Abstract

A numerical model was built using FEFLOW^® to simulate groundwater flow and heat transport in a confined aquifer in Brussels where two Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES) systems were installed. These systems are operating in adjacent buildings and exploit the same aquifer made up of mixed sandy and silty sublayers. The model was calibrated for groundwater flow and partially for heat transport. Several scenarios were considered to determine if the two ATES systems were interfering. The results showed that a significant imbalance between the injection of warm and cold water in the first installed ATES system led to the occurrence of a heat plume spreading more and more over the years. This plume eventually reached the cold wells of the same installation. The temperature, therefore, increased in warm and cold wells and the efficiency of the building’s cooling system decreased. When the second ATES system began to be operational, the simulated results showed that, even if the heat plumes of the two systems had come into contact, the influence of the second system on the first one was negligible during the first two years of joint operation. For a longer modeled period, simulated results pointed out that the joint operation of the two ATES systems was not adapted to balance, in the long term, the quantity of warm and cold water injected in the aquifer. The groundwater temperature would rise inexorably in the warm and cold wells of both systems. The heat plumes would spread more and more over the years at the expense of the efficiency of both systems, especially concerning building’s cooling with stored cold groundwater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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21 pages, 5908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Shallow Geothermal Potential for Heating and Cooling and Its Integration in the Socioeconomic Environment: A Case Study in the Region of Murcia, Spain

by Adela Ramos-Escudero, M. Socorro García-Cascales and Javier F. Urchueguía

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5740; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14185740 - 12 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

In order to boost the use of shallow geothermal energy, reliable and sound information concerning its potential must be provided to the public and energy decision-makers, among others. To this end, we developed a GIS-based methodology that allowed us to estimate the resource, energy, economic and environmental potential of shallow geothermal energy at a regional scale. Our method focuses on closed-loop borehole heat exchanger systems, which are by far the systems that are most utilized for heating and cooling purposes, and whose energy demands are similar throughout the year in the study area applied. The resource was assessed based on the thermal properties from the surface to a depth of 100 m, considering the water saturation grade of the materials. Additionally, climate and building characteristics data were also used as the main input. The G.POT method was used for assessing the annual shallow geothermal resource and for the specific heat extraction (sHe) rate estimation for both heating and, for the first time, for cooling. The method was applied to the Region of Murcia (Spain) and thematic maps were created with the outputting results. They offer insight toward the thermal energy that can be extracted for both heating and cooling in (MWh/year) and (W/m); the technical potential, making a distinction over the climate zones in the region; the cost of the possible ground source heat pump (GSHP) installation, associated payback period and the cost of producing the shallow geothermal energy; and, finally, the GHG emissions savings derived from its usage. The model also output the specific heat extraction rates, which are compared to those from the VDI 4640, which prove to be slightly higher than the previous one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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31 pages, 10496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of Geothermal Waters from Mesozoic Formations in the Basement of the Central Part of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Carpathians (Poland) Using Multivariate Statistical Methods

by Joanna Jasnos

Energies 2021, 14(13), 4022; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14134022 - 04 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1845

Abstract

The subject of this study is the chemical composition of potentially geothermal waters of the Mesozoic basement of the central part of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Outer Carpathians regions. The research objectives were: (1) to identify statistically significant differences between the chemical composition of waters from the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic aquifers, and between the waters of both regions; and (2) the discovery of zones indicating active water exchange—attractive due to the operational efficiency of wells. Knowledge of the chemical composition of water allows for the preliminary identification of areas of interest for the exploitation of water for recreational, healing, and heating purposes. The research methods used were: (1) statistical tests and (2) methods of multivariate data analysis, such as the Kruskal–Wallis test and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The performed tests and statistical analyses allowed us to draw conclusions about significant differences between the chemical composition of waters from the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Triassic aquifers, and the basement of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Outer Carpathians. They indicated the existence of a zone with symptoms of active water exchange. Before establishing the fact of active exchange of waters in this zone, further research should be undertaken. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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Review

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22 pages, 3094 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review on the Use of Shallow Geothermal Energy Systems for Heating and Cooling Purposes

by Abdelazim Abbas Ahmed, Mohsen Assadi, Adib Kalantar, Tomasz Sliwa and Aneta Sapińska-Śliwa

Energies 2022, 15(12), 4281; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15124281 - 10 Jun 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4333

Abstract

The reduction of CO₂ emissions has become a global concern. In this regard, the EU intends to cut CO₂ emissions by 55% by 2030 compared to those of 1990. The utilization of shallow geothermal energy (SGE) in EU countries is considered the most effective measure for decarbonizing heating and cooling. SGE systems utilize heat energy collected from the earth’s crust to provide secure, clean, and ubiquitous energy. This paper provides a literature review on the use of SGE for heating and cooling purposes. The latest advances in materials, new innovative structures, and techno-economic optimization approaches have been discussed in detail. Shallow geothermal energy’s potential is first introduced, and the innovative borehole structures to improve performance and reduce installation cost is outlined. This is followed by an extensive survey of different types of conventional and thermally enhanced collectors and grouts. Attention is mainly given to the techno-economic analysis and optimization approaches. In published case studies, the least economic break-even point against fossil fuel-based heating systems occurs within 2.5 to 17 years, depending on the local geological conditions, installation efficiency, energy prices, and subsidy. Ground source heat pumps’ cost-effectiveness could be improved through market maturity, increased efficiency, cheap electricity, and good subsidy programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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24 pages, 2355 KiB

Open AccessReview

Future Technology Mix—Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) and Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)—An Overview of Selected Projects as an Example for Future Investments in Poland

by Anna Sowiżdżał, Magdalena Starczewska and Bartosz Papiernik

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3505; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15103505 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4552

Abstract

Rising fuel prices, changes in energy markets, and concern for the environment make it necessary to develop new solutions and technologies. The development of new technologies brings with it the need to take risks associated with unpredictable consequences, technological immaturity, and other issues. However, without these elements, technological development is not possible. In this study, installations related to two different technologies—Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) and Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS)—are reviewed. An Enhanced Geothermal System is a technology for exploiting the energy stored in hot dry rocks. Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage is an important technology for reducing CO₂ emissions. The combination of these two technologies in CO₂–EGS systems can bring significant environmental benefits. This paper reviews the most important CCUS and EGS systems in the world to form a baseline for similar, future technology investment in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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28 pages, 4973 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prospects of Using Hydrocarbon Deposits from the Autochthonous Miocene Formation (Eastern Carpathian Foredeep, Poland) for Geothermal Purposes

by Anna Chmielowska, Anna Sowiżdżał and Barbara Tomaszewska

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3102; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14113102 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2237

Abstract

There are many oil and gas fields around the world where the vast number of wells have been abandoned or suspended, mainly due to the depletion of reserves. Those abandoned oil and gas wells (AOGWs) are often located in areas with a prospective geothermal potential and might be retrofitted to a geothermal system without high-cost drilling. In Poland, there are thousands of wells, either operating, abandoned or negative, that might be used for different geothermal applications. Thus, the aim of this paper is not only to review geothermal and petroleum facts about the Eastern Carpathian Foredeep, but also to find out the areas, geological structures or just AOGWs, which are the most prospective in case of geothermal utilization. Due to the inseparability of geological settings with both oil and gas, as well as geothermal conditionings, firstly, the geological background of the analyzed region was performed, considering mainly the autochthonous Miocene formation. Then, geothermal and petroleum detailed characteristics were made. In the case of geothermal parameters, such as formation’s thickness, temperatures, water-bearing horizons, wells’ capacities, mineralization and others were extensively examined. Considering oil and gas settings, insights into reservoir rocks, hydrocarbon traps and migration paths issues were created. Then, for evaluating geothermal parameters for specific hydrocarbon reservoirs, their depths were established based on publicly available wells data. Thereafter, the average temperatures for selected reservoirs were set. As the effect, it turned out that most of the deposits have average temperatures of 40/50 °C, nonetheless, there are a few characterized by higher (even around 80 °C) temperatures at reasonable depths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Systems)

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