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Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "D2: Electrochem: Batteries, Fuel Cells, Capacitors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 May 2023) | Viewed by 21863

Special Issue Editors

Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT) & Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB), Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
Interests: battery materials; battery process engineering; battery recycling; supercapacitor materials; nanomaterials
Institut für Partikeltechnik, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
Interests: particle comminution; particle formulation; product design; bulk solids handling; battery process engineering; pharmaceutical engineering; battery recycling
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the very fast-growing markets of electrical vehicles (EVs), it is absolutely necessary to improve battery design and the long process chain of battery production, including pack and module, cells, electrodes, and particularly functional particles as active material in anode and cathode electrodes. For the future battery generations, the design and production of solid electrolyte particles for all solid-state batteries are of special interest. Improvements in active and passive material particles and their processing should result in batteries with a high level of safety, increased environmental friendliness, and lower cost. This Special Issue (SI) aims to present the latest studies on all aspects related to the design, synthesis, and fabrication of anode and cathode active material particles from primary and secondary material resources as well as electronic and ionic conductive particles (carbon additives and solid electrolyte particles). Moreover, particles’ behavior during the processing of anode and cathode slurries, electrodes, and cells of different battery generations as well as safety concerns via experimental and modeling/simulation investigations are in the focus of this SI. Additionally, studies about lifecycle analysis and cost of battery material particles and their production and processing are welcome. The SI includes not only lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) but also other batteries with potential for commercial production and marketing.   

Dr. Mozaffar Abdollahifar
Prof. Dr. Arno Kwade
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • designing particles of anode and cathode active materials of LIBs
  • designing particles of cathodes of li-sulfur batteries
  • design of electronic and ionic conductive particles
  • electrode design and production
  • electrode calendaring
  • cell design and production
  • battery safety
  • production of solid-state battery materials, electrodes, and cells
  • battery modeling and simulation
  • battery lifecycle analysis/management/assessments
  • digitalization in battery production
  • reproduction of active materials from recycled batteries

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 6533 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Micron-Sized LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 and Its Application in Bimodal Distributed High Energy Density Li-Ion Battery Cathodes
by Chia-Hsin Lin, Senthil-Kumar Parthasarathi, Satish Bolloju, Mozaffar Abdollahifar, Yu-Ting Weng and Nae-Lih Wu
Energies 2022, 15(21), 8129; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15218129 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2008
Abstract
The uniform and smaller-sized (~3 μm) LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (SNCM) particles are prepared via a fast nucleation process of oxalate co-precipitation, followed by a two-step calcination procedure. It is found that the fast nucleation by vigorous agitation enables [...] Read more.
The uniform and smaller-sized (~3 μm) LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (SNCM) particles are prepared via a fast nucleation process of oxalate co-precipitation, followed by a two-step calcination procedure. It is found that the fast nucleation by vigorous agitation enables us to produce oxalate nuclei having a uniform size which then grow into micron-particles in less than a few minutes. The impacts of solution pH, precipitation time, calcination temperature, and surface modification with ZrO2 on the structural, morphological, and electrochemical properties of SNCM are systematically examined to identify the optimal synthetic conditions. A novel bimodal cathode design has been highlighted by using the combination of the SNCM particles and the conventional large (~10 μm) LiNi0.83Co0.12Mn0.05O2 (LNCM) particles to achieve the high volumetric energy density of cathode. The volumetric discharge capacity is found to be 526.6 mAh/cm3 for the bimodal cathode L80% + S20%, whereas the volumetric discharge capacity is found to be only 480.3 and 360.6 mAh/cm3 for L100% and S100% unimodal, respectively. Moreover, the optimal bi-modal cathode delivered higher specific energy (622.4 Wh/kg) and volumetric energy density (1622.6 Wh/L) than the L100% unimodal (596.1 Wh/kg and 1402.1 Wh/L) cathode after the 100th cycle. This study points to the promising utility of the SNCM material in Li-ion battery applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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20 pages, 8485 KiB  
Article
Hard Carbon Reprising Porous Morphology Derived from Coconut Sheath for Sodium-Ion Battery
by Meenatchi Thenappan, Subadevi Rengapillai and Sivakumar Marimuthu
Energies 2022, 15(21), 8086; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15218086 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1822
Abstract
Seeking effective energy technology has become a herculean task in today’s world. Sodium-ion batteries play a vital role in the present energy tech market due to their entrancing electrochemical properties and this work is a breakthrough for developing sodium-ion batteries. As per recent [...] Read more.
Seeking effective energy technology has become a herculean task in today’s world. Sodium-ion batteries play a vital role in the present energy tech market due to their entrancing electrochemical properties and this work is a breakthrough for developing sodium-ion batteries. As per recent reports, the preparation of anode materials seems to be very tedious in the realm of sodium-ion batteries. To remedy these issues, this work enlightens the preparation of hard carbon (HC) derived from coconut sheath (CS) by a pyrolysis process with different activating agents (KOH, NaOH, ZnCl2) and employed as an anode material for Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). The prepared anode material was characterized for its thermal, structural, functional, morphological, and electrochemical properties. Additionally, the surface area and pore diameter of the as-prepared anode material was studied by nitrogen adsorption and desorption isotherm methods. The coconut sheath-derived hard carbon (CSHC) anode material delivered an initial charge capacity of 141 mAh g−1, 153 mAh g−1, and 162 mAh g−1 at a 1 C rate with a coulombic efficiency over 98.8%, 99.3%, and 99.5%, even after 100 cycles, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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16 pages, 10048 KiB  
Article
Reproducible Production of Lithium-Ion Coin Cells
by Paul-Martin Luc, Simon Bauer and Julia Kowal
Energies 2022, 15(21), 7949; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15217949 - 26 Oct 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2267
Abstract
Due to the simple structure and the possibility of manual production, coin cells enable fast and, compared to larger cell formats, an inexpensive examination option in battery research. The comparability and traceability of coin cell structures in literature are only feasible to a [...] Read more.
Due to the simple structure and the possibility of manual production, coin cells enable fast and, compared to larger cell formats, an inexpensive examination option in battery research. The comparability and traceability of coin cell structures in literature are only feasible to a limited extent due to the lack of a standard in manual production. Since the findings from the literature are barely building up on each other and have not been repeated, a full factorial Design of Experiments (DoE) was performed to investigate the significance of earlier findings in terms of their influence on the reproducibility of the performance. The parameters studied were the anode-to-cathode ratio, the amount of electrolyte, the spring type and the separator count. To quantify the reproducibility of coin cell assembly, the number of functional cells (here: successful formation followed by 30 cycles) and the empirical coefficient of variation for the performance parameters discharge capacity, internal resistance and coulombic efficiency were compared. The critical parameters found in prior literature have no statistically significant influence on reproducibility when focusing on the number of functional cells. Instead, other uninvestigated parameters seem to influence the system coin cell more. By further examining the parameter settings that produced the most functional cells (≥75% of 8 cells), guidance for constructing coin cells (type R2032) was suggested, and other potential influencing parameters are discussed for further study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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13 pages, 4802 KiB  
Article
Thermal Electrical Tests for Battery Safety Standardization
by Annika Stein, Daniel Kehl, Cedric Jackmann, Stefan Essmann, Frank Lienesch and Michael Kurrat
Energies 2022, 15(21), 7930; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15217930 - 26 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1437
Abstract
Battery safety tests are defined by several international standards in different ways and with heterogenous termination and failure criteria. In this work, lithium-ion cells were examined regarding their behavior in the event of overcharging and also in the event of an external short [...] Read more.
Battery safety tests are defined by several international standards in different ways and with heterogenous termination and failure criteria. In this work, lithium-ion cells were examined regarding their behavior in the event of overcharging and also in the event of an external short circuit with varied parameters specified by standards. The voltage, current, and temperature curves were evaluated. In addition, the changes in the cells were analyzed using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). It is shown that the cells exhibit reproducible behavior in a clamped state. Further, it could be determined that the position of the cell opening during an overcharge has an influence on the further behavior of the cell. EIS data showed that the cells have a significantly higher internal resistance after an overcharge. The short-circuit tests at different ambient temperatures indicated that the internal resistance of the cell decreases with increasing temperature. However, no reproducible effects in impedance spectra were present after the short-circuit test. This work illustrates that the choice of test parameters and termination criteria undoubtedly influence the test results and thus may change the classification of cells as either safe or unsafe. Thus, cells may be classified as safe regarding a certain standard but unsafe regarding another. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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19 pages, 1412 KiB  
Article
Simulation-Based and Data-Driven Techniques for Quantifying the Influence of the Carbon Binder Domain on Electrochemical Properties of Li-Ion Batteries
by Tobias Knorr, Simon Hein, Benedikt Prifling, Matthias Neumann, Timo Danner, Volker Schmidt and Arnulf Latz
Energies 2022, 15(21), 7821; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15217821 - 22 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2058
Abstract
Most cathode materials for Li-ion batteries exhibit a low electronic conductivity. Therefore, a considerable amount of conductive additives is added during electrode production. A mixed phase of carbon and binder provides a 3D network for electron transport and at the same time improves [...] Read more.
Most cathode materials for Li-ion batteries exhibit a low electronic conductivity. Therefore, a considerable amount of conductive additives is added during electrode production. A mixed phase of carbon and binder provides a 3D network for electron transport and at the same time improves the mechanical stability of the electrodes. However, this so-called carbon binder domain (CBD) hinders the transport of lithium ions through the electrolyte and reduces the specific energy of the cells. Therefore, the CBD content is an important design parameter for optimal battery performance. In the present study, stochastic 3D microstructure modeling, microstructure characterization, conductivity simulations as well as microstructure-resolved electrochemical simulations are performed to identify the influence of the CBD content and its spatial distribution on electrode performance. The electrochemical simulations on virtual, but realistic, electrode microstructures with different active material content and particle size distributions provide insights to limiting transport mechanisms and optimal electrode configurations. Furthermore, we use the results of both the microstructure characterization and electrochemical simulations to deduce extensions of homogenized cell models providing improved predictions of cell performance at low CBD contents relevant for high energy density batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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15 pages, 4660 KiB  
Article
Turning Trash to Treasure: Reusable Glucose Kit as a Cell Using ZnO Derived from Metal Organic Framework (MOF) Electrode for Redox Flow Battery
by Priya Lakshmanan, Subadevi Rengapillai, Sivakumar Marimuthu and Suryanarayanan Vembu
Energies 2022, 15(20), 7635; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15207635 - 16 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1433
Abstract
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are a promising candidate that are capable of meeting the energy storage applications to fulfill the needs of renewable resources. Herein, we prepare an electrochemical device that holds higher energy density. In this work, a reusable glucose kit used [...] Read more.
Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are a promising candidate that are capable of meeting the energy storage applications to fulfill the needs of renewable resources. Herein, we prepare an electrochemical device that holds higher energy density. In this work, a reusable glucose kit used as a flow cell which in turn helps to minimize the cost and also balance the pump losses in electrochemical systems. For fabricating RFB, ZnO, from the metal organic framework (Zn-MOF/ZnO), uses an electrode material: ZnCl2 in aqueous KOH used as both anolyte and catholyte solution. Upon the new cell fabricating in this investigation, we demonstrated the voltage efficiency of 92% at 5 mA cm−2, which reduces the cost of the cell upon being implemented in the flow battery application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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12 pages, 2469 KiB  
Article
Reproducibility of Small-Format Laboratory Cells
by Paul-Martin Luc, Fabio Buchwald and Julia Kowal
Energies 2022, 15(19), 7333; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15197333 - 06 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1732
Abstract
For the research and development of new battery materials, achieving high reproducibility of the performance parameters in the laboratory test cells is of great importance. Therefore, in the present work, three typical small-format lithium-ion cells (coin cell, Swagelok cell and EL-CELL ECC-PAT-Core) were [...] Read more.
For the research and development of new battery materials, achieving high reproducibility of the performance parameters in the laboratory test cells is of great importance. Therefore, in the present work, three typical small-format lithium-ion cells (coin cell, Swagelok cell and EL-CELL ECC-PAT-Core) were tested and compared with regard to the reproducibility of their performance parameters (discharge capacity, internal resistance and coulombic efficiency). A design of experiments (DOE) with the two factors separator type and anode–cathode ratio (N/P ratio) was carried out for all cells. For the quality features discharge capacity, internal resistance and coulombic efficiency, the coefficient of variation is used as a measure of reproducibility. The statistical evaluation shows that in 83% of all cases, higher reproducibility is achieved when the Freudenberg separator is used instead of the Celgard separator. In addition, higher reproducibility is achieved in 78% of all cases if the anode and cathode are the same size. A general statement about which test cell format has the highest reproducibility cannot be made. Rather, the format selection should be adapted to the requirements. The examined factors seem to have an influence on the reproducibility but are more insignificant than other still-unknown factors. Since the production of small-format test cells is a manual process, the competence of the assembler seems to prevail. In order to mitigate the influence of as many unknown variables as possible, assembly instructions are proposed for each cell type. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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20 pages, 18712 KiB  
Article
Production and Characterization of Bacterial Cellulose Separators for Nickel-Zinc Batteries
by Raymond Leopold Heydorn, Jana Niebusch, David Lammers, Marion Görke, Georg Garnweitner, Katrin Dohnt and Rainer Krull
Energies 2022, 15(15), 5727; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15155727 - 06 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1743
Abstract
The need for energy-storing technologies with lower environmental impact than Li-ion batteries but similar power metrics has revived research in Zn-based battery chemistries. The application of bio-based materials as a replacement for current components can additionally contribute to an improved sustainability of Zn [...] Read more.
The need for energy-storing technologies with lower environmental impact than Li-ion batteries but similar power metrics has revived research in Zn-based battery chemistries. The application of bio-based materials as a replacement for current components can additionally contribute to an improved sustainability of Zn battery systems. For that reason, bacterial cellulose (BC) was investigated as separator material in Ni-Zn batteries. Following the biotechnological production of BC, the biopolymer was purified, and differently shaped separators were generated while surveying the alterations of its crystalline structure via X-ray diffraction measurements during the whole manufacturing process. A decrease in crystallinity and a partial change of the BC crystal allomorph type Iα to II was determined upon soaking in electrolyte. Electrolyte uptake was found to be accompanied by dimensional shrinkage and swelling, which was associated with partial decrystallization and hydration of the amorphous content. The separator selectivity for hydroxide and zincate ions was higher for BC-based separators compared to commercial glass-fiber (GF) or polyolefin separators as estimated from the obtained diffusion coefficients. Electrochemical cycling showed good C-rate capability of cells based on BC and GF separators, whereas cell aging was pronounced in both cases due to Zn migration and anode passivation. Lower electrolyte retention was concluded as major reason for faster capacity fading due to zincate supersaturation within the BC separator. However, combining a dense BC separator with low zincate permeability with a porous one as electrolyte reservoir reduced ZnO accumulation within the separator and improved cycling stability, hence showing potentials for separator adjustment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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17 pages, 2691 KiB  
Article
Process-Product Interdependencies in Lamination of Electrodes and Separators for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Ruben Leithoff, Arian Fröhlich, Steffen Masuch, Gabriela Ventura Silva and Klaus Dröder
Energies 2022, 15(7), 2670; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15072670 - 06 Apr 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2861
Abstract
In today’s cell production, the focus lies on maximizing productivity while maintaining product quality. To achieve this, the lamination of electrode and separator is one key process technology, as it bonds the electrode and separator to form mechanically resilient intermediate products. These mechanically [...] Read more.
In today’s cell production, the focus lies on maximizing productivity while maintaining product quality. To achieve this, the lamination of electrode and separator is one key process technology, as it bonds the electrode and separator to form mechanically resilient intermediate products. These mechanically resilient intermediates are necessary to enable high throughput processes. Although the lamination process has significant effects on the electrochemical performance of battery cells, it has not been sufficiently researched with regard to its process-product interdependencies. Therefore, this paper addresses the investigation of these interdependencies and proposes three characterization methods (grey scale analysis, high potential tests, electrochemical cycling and C-rate tests). The results of the three methods show that the lamination process with its process parameters (lamination temperature, lamination pressure and material feed rate) has an influence on both the properties of the intermediate product and the cell properties. In conclusion, the knowledge of the process-product interdependencies is essential in order to utilize the advantages of lamination integrated into the process chain and consequently achieve quality-assured cell production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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Review

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28 pages, 6835 KiB  
Review
Insights into Enhancing Electrochemical Performance of Li-Ion Battery Anodes via Polymer Coating
by Mozaffar Abdollahifar, Palanivel Molaiyan, Milena Perovic and Arno Kwade
Energies 2022, 15(23), 8791; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15238791 - 22 Nov 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2594
Abstract
Due to the ever-growing importance of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the development of electrode materials and their processing techniques remains a hot topic in academia and industry. Even the well-developed and widely utilized active materials present issues, such as surface reactivity, irreversible capacity in [...] Read more.
Due to the ever-growing importance of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the development of electrode materials and their processing techniques remains a hot topic in academia and industry. Even the well-developed and widely utilized active materials present issues, such as surface reactivity, irreversible capacity in the first cycle, and ageing. Thus, there have been many efforts to modify the surface of active materials to enhance the electrochemical performance of the resulting electrodes and cells. Herein, we review the attempts to use polymer coatings on the anode active materials. This type of coating stands out because of the possibility of acting as an artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), serving as an anode protective layer. We discuss the prominent examples of anodes with different mechanisms: intercalation (graphite and titanium oxides), alloy (silicon, tin, and germanium), and conversion (transition metal oxides) anodes. Finally, we give our perspective on the future developments in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Design and Processing for Battery Production)
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