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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "F: Electrical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 30445

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Prof. Dr. Santiago Arnaltes Gómez

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Guest Editor

Department of Electrical Engineering, University Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, Spain
Interests: control drives; wind energy systems; HVDC transmission systems
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt

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Guest Editor

Electrical Power Engineering, Institutt for Elektro, IT og Kybernetikk, Universitetet I Sørøst-Norge, Porsgrunn, Norway
Interests: power system protection; real-time simulation; hardware in the loop; cyber-physical systems; artificial intelligence
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Electrical energy storage systems (EESS) for electrical power systems are becoming more relevant and actively used at virtually all levels, from residential to utility level applications. EESSs constitute an essential element in accelerate progress of a low-carbon society/economy.

The EESS has been recognized as a very attractive solution for many of the operational and planning challenges of the future power system. EESS can perform many functionalities in the modern power systems—for instance, enabling the integration of renewable energies by mitigating intermittency of the sources and improving voltage and frequency control, while increasing of grid reliability.

The success in the use of EESS in power systems is being driven by many technological developments and cost reduction. In particular, electrochemical energy storage systems based on batteries are quickly penetrating in the power system. The battery technology development created in the automotive industry has accelerated the cost reduction of this energy storage technology. For instance, some reports indicate the lithium–ion batteries will become at least 50% cheaper in the next decade.

This Special Issue on Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy enables a unique dedicated opportunity to disseminate state-of-the-art research works in innovative aspects of EESS from the technology and system point of view. This Special Issue provides a top-quality peer-reviewed diffusion platform for scientists and engineers in academia, research institutions, government agencies, and industry.

Topics of interests of this Special Issue include but are not limited to:

Trends and developments in novel EESS application in power systems;
Recent tendencies on the integration of EESS in the electrical power system;
Novel technologies of energy conversion used in EESS with special emphasis on power electronic converters as an interface to the electricity network;
Business models, policies, markets, customer incentives, regulation;
Innovative grid services using EESS;
Novel and innovative techniques for planning, operation, and control of EESS;
Optimal sizing of EESS for renewable energy integration;
Novel control schemes for grid code compliance;
Novel schemes of hybrid energy storage solutions and hybrid renewable energy systems;
Relevant projects and experiences in renewable energy integration using EESS.

The guest editorial team invite to submit high-quality, original and unpublished contributions in all the above aspects.

Prof. Dr. Santiago Arnaltes Gómez
Prof. Dr. Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Energy storage systems
EESS modeling and simulation
Policy, economics, regulation
EESS planning, operation, and control
Renewable energies

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cost Functions for Generation Dispatching in Microgrids for Non-Interconnected Zones in Colombia

by Cristian Hoyos-Velandia, Lina Ramirez-Hurtado, Jaime Quintero-Restrepo, Ricardo Moreno-Chuquen and Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt

Energies 2022, 15(7), 2418; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15072418 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1870

Abstract

Generation dispatching is a challenge in islanded microgrids due to the operational and economic restrictions in isolated zones. Furthermore, the impact of usual operational network changes in topology, load demand, and generation availability may become significant considering the grid size. This research paper presents a detailed multiple cost function modeling methodology of an optimal power flow algorithm applied to a non-interconnected zone in Colombia. The optimal power flow (OPF) formulation includes cost functions related to renewable resources as presented in the isolated zone and a complete model of the charging and discharging of batteries. Additionally, the flexibility of the proposal is tested using three different network topologies with a characteristic daily load curve from the zone. The main contribution of this paper lies in the implementation of an optimal power flow including cost functions of renewable sources for isolated microgrids. A test case for a non-interconnected zone in Colombia is performed for various operation cases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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13 pages, 784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Type-2 Fuzzy Controller to Enable the EFR Service from a Battery Energy Storage System

by Sergio Cantillo-Luna, Ricardo Moreno-Chuquen, Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt and Harold R. Chamorro

Energies 2022, 15(7), 2389; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15072389 - 24 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1585

Abstract

The increased use of distributed energy resources, especially electrical energy storage systems (EESS), has led to greater flexibility and complexity in power grids, which has led to new challenges in the operation of these systems, with particular emphasis on frequency regulation. To this end, the transmission system operator in Great Britain has designed a control scheme known as Enhanced Frequency Response (EFR) that is especially attractive for its implementation in EESS. This paper proposes a Type-2 fuzzy control system that enables the provision of EFR service from a battery energy storage system in order to improve the state-of-charge (SoC) management while providing EFR service from operating scenarios during working and off-duty days. The performance of the proposed controller is compared with a conventional FLC and PID controllers with similar features. The results showed that in all scenarios, but especially under large frequency deviations, the proposed controller presents a better SoC management in comparison without neglecting the EFR service provision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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20 pages, 4375 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

An In-Depth Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Lithium-Ion Battery for Climate Impact Mitigation Strategies

by Jhuma Sadhukhan and Mark Christensen

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5555; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14175555 - 06 Sep 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10300

Abstract

Battery energy storage systems (BESS) are an essential component of renewable electricity infrastructure to resolve the intermittency in the availability of renewable resources. To keep the global temperature rise below 1.5 °C, renewable electricity and electrification of the majority of the sectors are a key proposition of the national and international policies and strategies. Thus, the role of BESS in achieving the climate impact mitigation target is significant. There is an unmet need for a detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) of BESS with lithium-ion batteries being the most promising one. This study conducts a rigorous and comprehensive LCA of lithium-ion batteries to demonstrate the life cycle environmental impact hotspots and ways to improve the hotspots for the sustainable development of BESS and thus, renewable electricity infrastructure. The whole system LCA of lithium-ion batteries shows a global warming potential (GWP) of 1.7, 6.7 and 8.1 kg CO₂ eq kg⁻¹ in change-oriented (consequential) and present with and without recycling credit consideration, scenarios. The GWP hotspot is the lithium-ion cathode, which is due to lithium hexafluorophosphate that is ultimately due to the resource-intensive production system of phosphorous, white, liquid. To compete against the fossil economy, the GWP of BESS must be curbed by 13 folds. To be comparable with renewable energy systems, hydroelectric, wind, biomass, geothermal and solar (4–76 g CO₂ eq kWh⁻¹), 300 folds reduction in the GWP of BESS will be necessary. The areas of improvement to lower the GWP of BESS are as follows: reducing scopes 2–3 emissions from fossil resource use in the material production processes by phosphorous recycling, increasing energy density, increasing lifespan by effective services, increasing recyclability and number of lives, waste resource acquisition for the battery components and deploying multi-faceted integrated roles of BESS. Achieving the above can be translated into an overall avoided GWP of up to 82% by 2040. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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34 pages, 37790 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Energy Flow Algorithm for Household, Street and Battery Charging in Smart Street Development

by Rikin Tailor, Zsolt Čonka, Michal Kolcun and Ľubomír Beňa

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3771; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14133771 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2036

Abstract

The world demands a smart and green future in every sector, which directly corresponds to increases in electrical energy demand one way or another. It is unfeasible to attain future energy demand with the present electrical infrastructure. That means more research and development is required. Future energy sources should be intermittent, and, in addition, the energy sector should be more inwards for distributed energy generation with demand side control. In such cases, the smartest and most autonomous system would be essential to deliver an adequate power supply with all electrical properties. A real-time monitoring and control system with a self-healing infrastructure is a forthcoming desideratum. By accepting these challenges, we have designed a smart street. The basic idea of the smart street is presented in this paper as a landing page; the paper is more focused on emphasizing information regarding the electrical energy flow algorithm for the household, street, and street battery storages. This algorithm is helpful for two-way energy flow and the automatic detection of islanding and the grid connection mode. It will be not only helpful for the users but to the utility as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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20 pages, 4886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Optimisation of a Current-Fed Solid-State Transformer for MV Grid-Connected Applications

by Essam Hussain, Mohammad Abusara and Suleiman Sharkh

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3283; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14113283 - 04 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

For integrating large batteries in the medium voltage grid, current fed solid-state transformers offer galvanic isolation and a significant weight and size reduction. While the power losses increase with frequency and flux density, the core volume is contrariwise. Therefore, a design optimisation to achieve minimum losses and/or a minimum volume is essential. An optimisation strategy is proposed in this paper to find the optimum operating frequency and core flux density under certain practical constraints such as winding voltage per turn, clearance between transformer windings, saturation flux density and minimum efficiency. Differently from previous works, the proposed strategy provides a holistic approach for the design considering all main power losses from all main components using nonsinusoidal voltage waveforms and different operating conditions. Analytical equations for the power losses calculation and the cores design are derived and validated using ANSYS and MATLAB Simulink software packages. Simulation results of the power loss calculation under different operating frequencies and duty cycles are presented and compared with the analytical results. A case study for designing a 1.0 MW, 0.6/18 kV current fed solid-state transformer is presented. The results of two optimisation objectives, minimum power losses or minimum total cores housing volume are also shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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21 pages, 6039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maximum Utilization of Dynamic Rating Operated Distribution Transformer (DRoDT) with Battery Energy Storage System: Analysis on Impact from Battery Electric Vehicles Charging

by Saifal Talpur, Tek Tjing Lie, Ramon Zamora and Bhaba Priyo Das

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3411; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13133411 - 02 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2076

Abstract

This paper investigates thermal overloading, voltage dips and insulation failure across a distribution transformer (DT), under residential and battery electric vehicle (BEV) loadings. The objective of this paper is to discuss the charging impact of BEVs on voltage across consumer-service points, as well as across the life of paper insulation under varying ambient temperatures (during winter and summer), with and without a centralized battery energy storage system (BESS). This study contributes in two ways. The first part of this study deals with coordinated and uncoordinated BEV charging scenarios. The second part of this study deals with maximum utilization of a test DT rated under dynamic thermal rating (DRoDT). The DRoDT integration with BESS is carried out to flatten the load spikes, to obtain maximum DT utilization, to achieve active power and voltage supports in addition to an enhanced DT lifespan. The obtained results indicate that, when test DT operates under the proposed hybrid technique (combining both dynamic transformer ratings and a centralized BESS), it attains maximum utilization, lower hot-spot temperature, enhanced lifespan, less degraded paper insulation and an improved voltage across each consumer service point. The proposed technique is furthermore found effective in maintaining the loading across the distribution transformer within the nominal limits. However, under excess loading during peak hours, the proposed technique provides relief to the DT to a certain extent. To achieve an optimal DT operation and an enhanced BESS lifespan, the BESS is operated under nominal charging and discharging cyclic limits. Under the proposed DRoDT integration with BESS, DT attains 25.9% more life when loaded with coordinated BEV charging, in comparison to no BESS integration under the same loading scenario. The worst loading due to uncoordinated BEV charging also brings 51% increase in DT life when loaded under the proposed technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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18 pages, 7362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dimensioning Methodology of Energy Storage Systems for Power Smoothing in a Wave Energy Conversion Plant Considering Efficiency Maps and Filtering Control Techniques

by Jorge Torres, Marcos Blanco, Marcos Lafoz, Gustavo Navarro, Jorge Nájera and Miguel Santos-Herran

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3380; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13133380 - 01 Jul 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1953

Abstract

This paper aims at presenting and describing a dimensioning methodology for energy storage systems (ESS), in particular for one based on flywheels, applied for the specific application of reducing power oscillation in a wave energy conversion (WEC) plant. The dimensioning methodology takes into account the efficiency maps of the storage technology as well as the effect of the filtering control techniques. The methodology is applied to the case study of a WEC plant in operation in Spain, using real power generation profiles delivered into the electric grid. The paper firstly describes the calculation procedure of the efficiency maps for the particular technology of flywheels, although it could be extended to other storage technologies. Then, the influence of using future data values in the dimensioning process and the control of the ESS operation is analysed in depth. A moving average filter (MAF) is defined to compensate for power oscillations, studying the difference between considering prediction and not doing so. It is concluded that a filtering control using future values based on a number of samples equivalent to a 4-min time order provides an important reduction in the energy storage requirements for a power generation plant. Finally, and based on the selection of storage modules previously defined, the efficiency maps, and the MAF used for delivering the power into the grid, an optimal operation strategy is suggested for the storage modules, based on a stepped switching technique. The selection of four flywheel energy storage system (FESS) modules achieves a reduction of 50% in power oscillations, covering 85% of the frequency excursions at the grid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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18 pages, 2529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Converter Synchronizing Method for the Contribution of Battery Energy Storage Systems to Inertia Emulation

by Andrés Peña Asensio, Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt, Santiago Arnaltes and Jose Luis Rodríguez-Amenedo

Energies 2020, 13(6), 1478; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13061478 - 20 Mar 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the effect of the converter synchronizing methods on the contribution that Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) can provide for the support of the inertial response of a power system. Solutions based on phase-locked loop (PLL) synchronization and virtual synchronous machine (VSM) synchronization without PLL are described and then compared by using time-domain simulations for an isolated microgrid (MG) case study. The simulation results showed that inertial response can be provided both with and without the use of a PLL. However, the behavior in the first moments of the inertia response differed. For the PLL-based solutions, the transient response was dominated by the low-level current controllers, which imposed fast under-damped oscillations, while the VSM systems presented a slower response resulting in a higher amount of energy exchanged and therefore a greater contribution to the support of the system inertial response. Moreover, it was demonstrated that PLL-based solutions with and without derivative components presented similar behavior, which significantly simplified the implementation of the PLL-based inertia emulation solutions. Finally, results showed that the contribution of the BESS using VSM solutions was limited by the effect of the VSM-emulated inertia parameters on the system stability, which reduced the emulated inertia margin compared to the PLL-based solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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25 pages, 3060 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Interaction of Electrical Energy Storage, Flexible Bioenergy Plants and System-friendly Renewables in Wind- or Solar PV-dominated Regions

by Philip Tafarte, Annedore Kanngießer, Martin Dotzauer, Benedikt Meyer, Anna Grevé and Markus Millinger

Energies 2020, 13(5), 1133; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13051133 - 03 Mar 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3374

Abstract

Wind and solar PV have become the lowest-cost alternatives for power generation in many countries and are expected to dominate the renewable power supply in many regions of the world. The temporal volatility in power production from these sources leads to new challenges for a stable and secure power supply system. Possible technologies to improve the integration of wind and solar PV are electrical energy storage and the flexible power provision by bioenergy. A third option is the system-friendly layout of wind and solar PV systems and the optimized mix of wind and solar PV capacities. To assess these different options at hand, a case study was conducted covering various scenarios for a regional power supply based on a high share of wind and solar PV. State-of-the-art concepts for all the stated technologies are modelled and a numerical optimization approach is applied on temporally-resolved time series data to identify the potential role of each option and their respective interactions. Power storage was found to be most relevant in solar dominated systems, due to the diurnal generation pattern, whereas bioenergy is more suitably combined with high wind power shares due to the less regular generation pattern. System-friendly wind and solar power can reduce the need for generation capacity and flexible options by fitting generation and demand patterns better. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage for Grid Integration of Renewable Energy)

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