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Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "C: Energy Economics and Policy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2022) | Viewed by 32858

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Dr. Tomasz Rokicki

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Management Institute, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska St. 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: energy economy; micro- and macro-economy; economic geography; logistics (above all transport problems); management of information
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Dear Colleagues,

The Visegrad Group (V4) is an association of four Central European countries – Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. The group aimed to deepen cooperation between these countries, and, in the initial phase, in particular, concerning accession to the structures of the European Union and NATO. The Visegrad Group was established in 1991 by three countries (Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia) forming the so-called Visegrad Triangle. Later, as a result of the dissolution of Czechoslovakia (on January 1, 1993), the Czech Republic and Slovakia became members of the group. The V4 countries had similar goals for their foreign policy, but also similar possibilities for its implementation. These countries belonged to the former communist bloc, which was best prepared for the market economy. Additionally, they represented a very similar level of socio-economic development.

This issue welcomes papers relating to energy supply in the Visegrad countries. Studies can cover both macroeconomic and microeconomic aspects. It is important to define how the V4 countries cope with energy management, how they have undergone or are going through the energy transformation, and in which direction they are going. The articles may concern aspects of the use of energy sources, energy security, social and economic aspects of energy, the impact of energy consumption on the environment, and modern solutions in the energy sector. It is also possible to present a comparison of changes in the energy situation in the V4 countries compared to other European countries, both economically developed and developing.

Dr. Tomasz Rokicki
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Energy supplies
Visegrad Group countries
Energy performance
Energy efficiency
Energy security
Circular economy
Energy market
Social and economic aspects of energy
Impact of energy consumption on the environment
Directions of energy development

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 3505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining the Power and Capacity of Electricity Storage in Cooperation with the Microgrid for the Implementation of the Price Arbitration Strategy of Industrial Enterprises Installation

by Rafał Kuźniak, Artur Pawelec, Artur S. Bartosik and Marek Pawelczyk

Energies 2022, 15(15), 5614; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15155614 - 02 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1609

Abstract

The growing worldwide costs of energy produced as a result of conventional fuel combustion, the limited capacity of the distribution grid, and the growing number of unstable installations based on renewable energy sources increase the need to implement systems of stabilization and regulate loads for end users. The battery energy storage system (BESS) that operates in the internal microgrid of an enterprise enables the management of the accumulated energy in any time zone of the day. Using a price arbitrage strategy with an electricity storage facility, we can reduce the cost of high electricity prices during peak demand periods. This study aims to determine the most effective method of setting up the capacity and electrical power of an energy storage system operating in a microgrid, in an enterprise to implement a price arbitration strategy. Such a method should include consideration of the characteristics of the demand profile of consumer systems, the charges related to electricity, and electricity storage costs. The proposed deterministic method is based on the use of a defined parameter, “marginal income elasticity”. In this study, the size of energy storage refers to the power and electric capacity of BESS that are used for the implementation of the price arbitrage strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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13 pages, 260 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Energy Efficiency of the Last Mile in the E-Commerce Distribution in the Context the COVID-19 Pandemic

by Dariusz Milewski and Beata Milewska

Energies 2021, 14(23), 7863; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14237863 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3564

Abstract

The e-commerce industry has been developing extremely dynamically for many years. This development was intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the research conducted by the authors of this paper, in Poland, during the pandemic, the number of delivered parcels increased 20–100%, depending on the courier company. The research of the authors of this article focused on the energy efficiency of the last mile, which is very important for the efficiency of the entire delivery process to customers. As the authors calculated, the last mile can consume over 70% of energy of the whole distribution channel. The article presents the results of research concerning the energy efficiency of deliveries performed by couriers and express companies in Poland. Two models of distribution used Poland have been compared—direct deliveries to final customers, and deliveries to parcel lockers. The research methods are interviews with the managers and couriers, analysis of the literature, and the simulation method. According to the results of the simulations performed by the authors, distribution with the use of parcels lockers can help reduce the consumption of fuel even by 74–87% per parcel or 36% per m³. Apart from this, the authors calculated the impact of scale of operations on the energy efficiency of the transport processes on the last mile, which is an indirect effect of the growth of the e-commerce market, caused by the pandemic. Based on the results of the original research of the authors, it can be assessed that the growth of the number of the delivered parcels during the pandemic resulted in the consumption of fuel per one parcel being reduced in some cases by over 36%. The novelty of the authors’ research is that the conducted simulations regarded not only the efficiency of the processes, but also the energy consumption in delivering parcels at the last mile and during the pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

20 pages, 720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Economic Efficiency of the Operation of Low-Emission and Zero-Emission Vehicles in Public Transport in the Countries of the Visegrad Group

by Sławomir Stec

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7706; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14227706 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1591

Abstract

Transport is one of the key sectors of the European economy. However, the intensive development of transport caused negative effects in the form of an increase in the emission of harmful substances. The particularly dramatic situation took place in the V4 countries. This made it necessary to implement solutions reducing emissions in transport, including passenger transport. Such activities can be implemented in the field of implementation of low-emission and zero-emission vehicles for use. That is why the European Union and the governments of the Visegrad Group countries have developed numerous recommendations, communications, laws, and strategies that order carriers to implement low- and zero-emission mobility. Therefore, transport organizers and communication operators faced the choice of the type of buses. From an economic point of view, each entrepreneur is guided by the economic efficiency of the vehicles used. Hence, the main aim of the article was to conduct an economic evaluation of the operational efficiency of ecological vehicles. As more than 70% of vehicles in use in the European Union are still diesel driven, the economic efficiency assessment was also made for vehicles with traditional diesel drive. To conduct the research, the method of calculating the total cost of ownership of vehicles in operation was used. As a result of the research, it was found that electric buses are the cheapest in the entire period of use (15 years), and then those powered by CNG. On the other hand, the cost of using hydrogen buses is the highest. This is due to the high purchase prices of these vehicles. However, the EU, as well as the governments of individual countries, support enterprises and communication operators, by offering them financing for investments. The impact of the forecasted fuel and energy prices and the planned inflation on operating costs was also examined. In this case, the analyses showed that the forecasted changes in fuel and energy prices, as well as the expected inflation, will significantly affect the costs of vehicle operation and the economic efficiency of using various types of drives. These changes will have a positive impact on the implementation of zero-emission vehicles into exploitation. Based on the analyses, it was found that in 2035 hydrogen buses will have the lowest operating costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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22 pages, 5999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Self-Sufficient Livestock Farm as the Example of Agricultural Hybrid Off-Grid System

by Grzegorz Augustyn, Jerzy Mikulik, Rafał Rumin and Marta Szyba

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7041; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14217041 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2846

Abstract

Contemporary agriculture has become very energy-intensive and mainly uses electricity, which is needed for technological processes on livestock farms. Livestock faeces are burdensome for the environment due to the release of methane into the atmosphere. This article presents the concept of a self-sufficient livestock farm as an off-grid energy circuit that is a part of the agricultural process. The key idea is to obtain an energy flow using the concept of a smart valve to achieve a self-sufficient energy process based on a biogas plant, renewable energy sources, and energy storage. During the production process, a livestock farm produces large amounts of waste in the form of grey and black manure. On the one hand, these products are highly harmful to the environment, but on the other, they are valuable input products for another process, i.e., methane production. The methane becomes the fuel for cogeneration generators that produce heat and electricity. Heat and electricity are partly returned to the main farming process and partly used by residents of the area. In this way, a livestock farm and the inhabitants of a village or town can become energy self-sufficient and independent of national grids. The idea described in this paper shows the process of energy production combining a biogas plant, renewable energy sources, and an energy storage unit that enable farmland to become fully self-sufficient through the energy flow between all constituents of the energy cycle being maintained by a smart valve. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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21 pages, 4535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differentiation and Changes of Household Electricity Prices in EU Countries

by Tomasz Rokicki, Piotr Bórawski, Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk, Aldona Mrówczyńska-Kamińska, Joanna Kozak, Danuta Jolanta Guzal-Dec and Kamil Wojtczuk

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6894; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14216894 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2664

Abstract

The paper’s main purpose is to identify the differentiation and variation of electricity prices for households in EU countries. The specific objectives are to highlight the directions and differentiation of price changes in EU states, determine the degree of volatility (or stability) of electricity rates, and establish the correlation between electricity prices for household consumers and economic and energy parameters. All members of the European Union were chosen for this project as of 31 December 2019 (28 countries). The analyzed period covered the years 2008–2019. The source of collected information was the thematic literature review and the data from Eurostat. Descriptive, tabular and graphical methods, constant-based dynamics indicators, coefficient of variation, Kendall’s tau correlation coefficient, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient were used to analyze and present the materials. It was determined that higher electricity prices for households in the EU states were associated with better economic parameters. Developed countries must have higher energy rates because they will ensure energy transformation, i.e., implementing energy-saving technologies. In the EU, electricity prices for household consumers showed little volatility, but that variability increased in line with the surge of the volume of household energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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14 pages, 944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Interrelationships between Markets of Fuels in the Visegrad Group Countries from 2016 to 2020

by Anna Górska and Monika Krawiec

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6536; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14206536 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1221

Abstract

A fuel market is an important sector of the economy and fuel prices influence the prices of numerous products and services. This paper focuses on the analysis of the interrelationships between markets of fuels in the Visegrad Group (V4) countries. The research is based on weekly prices of Pb95 gasoline and diesel in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia observed from January 2016 through December 2020. After performing the preliminary statistical analysis, the long-term relationships between the prices of fuels are investigated through application of the cointegrated regression Durbin–Watson (CRDW) test. Next, Granger causality is tested to answer the question of whether changes in prices of fuels in separate V4 countries Granger-cause changes in prices of fuels in other V4 countries. The cointegration research uses logarithmic prices, whereas causality investigation is based on their first differences. The results reveal long-term relationships between the prices of Pb95 gasoline in the Czech Republic and prices in other V4 countries as well as Granger causality flowing from diesel price changes in Poland to diesel price changes in other V4 countries and bilateral causation between changes in the prices of Pb95 gasoline in Poland, Hungary and Slovakia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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17 pages, 1481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Renewable Energy Sources in the European Union and the Visegrad Group Countries—Results of Cluster Analysis

by Elżbieta Kacperska, Katarzyna Łukasiewicz and Piotr Pietrzak

Energies 2021, 14(18), 5680; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14185680 - 09 Sep 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3015

Abstract

Increasing the use of renewable energy sources is one of the strategic objectives of the European Union. In this regard, it seems necessary to answer the question: which of the member countries are the most effective in its implementation? Therefore, the main goal was to distinguish groups of European Union countries, including the Visegrad Group, differing in the use of renewable energy sources in transport, electricity, heating and cooling (based on cluster analysis). All members of the EU were determinedly selected for research on 1 February 2020 (27 countries). The research period embraced the years 2009–2019. The sources of materials were the literature on the topic and data from Eurostat. Descriptive, tabular, graphical methods and cluster analysis were used in the presentation and analysis of materials. In 2019 wind and hydro power accounted for two-thirds of the total electricity generated from renewable sources. In 2019, renewable energy sources made up 34% of gross electricity consumption in the EU-27. Wind and hydro power accounted for two-thirds of the total electricity generated from renewable sources (35% each). Moreover, it was determined that there were 5 clusters that differed in their use of renewable energy sources. The highest average renewable energy consumption in transport, heating and cooling in 2019 was characterized by a cluster consisting of Sweden and Finland. In contrast, the highest average renewable energy consumption in electricity was characterized by a cluster consisting of countries such as: Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Latvia and Portugal. Finally, in a group that included countries such as Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands and the entire VG (Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia and Poland), renewable energy consumption rates (in transport, electricity, heating and cooling) were lower than the EU average (27 countries). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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24 pages, 3644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of the Energy Sector on the Quality of the Environment in the Opinion of Energy Consumers from Southeastern Poland

by Krzysztof Kud, Marian Woźniak and Aleksandra Badora

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5551; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14175551 - 05 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2220

Abstract

Limiting CO₂ emissions has been adopted as a contemporary challenge and introduced into numerous global and regional policies. The measures taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions largely relate to the decarbonization of the economy. Changes in the Polish energy sector are a huge challenge because the energy mix is dominated by the energy derived from coal combustion. Decarbonizing the energy sector will require significant financial resources. Therefore, several questions arise: What is the social attitude to the planned changes? How do residents treat the issue of greenhouse gases? Do they perceive the relationship between energy production and the quality of the natural environment? What are their expectations regarding the transformation of the energy sector? The aim of this study was to identify the opinion of the inhabitants of southeastern Poland on changes in the energy sector and its impact on the quality of the natural environment. The study was conducted at the turn of 2020 and 2021. The survey was partial and carried out using the CAWI (Computer Assisted Web Interview) method; 1539 questionnaire forms were filled in and the sample was randomly selected. The study confirms the following research hypotheses: 1. There is social support for the view that climate change is currently one of the greatest threats to modern civilization. 2. There is a social belief that the quality of the natural environment in southeastern Poland is good compared to other regions of Poland and Europe. 3. Increasing the share of energy based on renewable energy sources is socially expected. 4. There is a social expectation of nuclear energy. It can therefore be concluded that the surveyed community accepts the direction of changes in the energy sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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21 pages, 2268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity and Changes in Energy Consumption by Transport in EU Countries

by Tomasz Rokicki, Grzegorz Koszela, Luiza Ochnio, Kamil Wojtczuk, Marcin Ratajczak, Hubert Szczepaniuk, Konrad Michalski, Piotr Bórawski and Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska

Energies 2021, 14(17), 5414; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14175414 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1892

Abstract

The main purpose of this paper is to present the differences in the volume of energy consumption in transport in the EU (European Union) countries. The specific objectives aim to determine the directions of changes and the degree of concentration in the volume of energy utilized by the transport sector in EU states, showing various models in this area, to establish the association between energy absorption and the parameters of the economy and in the field of transport. All EU countries were selected for research by the use of the purposeful selection method as of 31 December 2018. The analyzed period covered the years 2004–2018. For the examination of data, grading data analysis was used as one of the methods of multivariate data analysis. Descriptive, tabular and graphic methods were used to present the results. Findings reveal that there is a general tendency to reduce total energy consumption in the EU countries. The same is the case of energy in transport. Only in 2016–2018 was there an increase in energy absorption in transport. The reason was the better economic situation in this period. Road conveyance is the most important factor in energy utilization (over 90%). The share of other modes of transport was very small. Economically developing countries were the fastest in increasing energy absorption in transport per capita. In turn, highly developed states recorded slight growth and were stable in this aspect. There was a close relationship between energy utilization in transport per capita and GDP per capita. The reduction of energy consumption in transport depends on changes in road haulage, e.g., the pace of introducing innovative energy-saving technologies in automotive transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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24 pages, 2028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Consumption and Its Structures in Food Production Systems of the Visegrad Group Countries Compared with EU-15 Countries

by Bartłomiej Bajan, Joanna Łukasiewicz and Aldona Mrówczyńska-Kamińska

Energies 2021, 14(13), 3945; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14133945 - 01 Jul 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2977

Abstract

While joining the European Union (EU) in 2004, the countries of the Visegrad Group (V4) had to face a major challenge in the context of adapting to the EU standards in the field of energy use and energy efficiency. One of the sectors that heavily depends on the use of energy (mainly from fossil fuels) is the food production system, whose energy transformation is essential for future food security. The study aimed to measure the use of energy and its structures in the food production systems of the V4 countries and the EU-15 countries in relation to the implementation of the EU energy targets. The targets assumed, among other things, a reduction in overall energy use and an increase in the share of renewables in the energy mix. The proprietary method based on the assumptions of lifecycle assessment was applied to measure energy consumption in the food production systems with the use of input–output tables and energy accounts, which are part of the World Input–Output Database. The research shows a decreasing share of the food production systems in energy use of the V4 countries, while in the EU-15 countries, it remains on average at a stable, low level (around 4.4%). The discussed share for Poland averaged 8.8% in the period considered, for Hungary 7.6%, for the Czech Republic 3.8%, and for Slovakia 3.3%. The share of renewables in energy use of the food production systems is growing. However, in some countries of the EU-15, it increases at a slower pace than the assumed strategic goals, mainly in the countries that are the largest food producers in the EU. For Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, and Italy, the average deviation of the share of renewables use in the food production system from the 2020 target for the entire economy is around 12 percentage points. In the case of V4 countries, the share of renewable energy use in food production systems is close to the assumed strategic targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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21 pages, 4027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Renewable Energy Producers’ Strategies in the Visegrád Group Countries

by Adam Sulich and Letycja Sołoducho-Pelc

Energies 2021, 14(11), 3048; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14113048 - 24 May 2021

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 3237

Abstract

Companies that belong to the energy sector can use Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for their strategies and diversify electrical energy production with reverence to the natural environment. This article aims to analyze sustainability strategy types among the Visegrád Group (V4) countries’ energy producers, who decided to generate electrical energy from the renewable resources. This research uses an inductive inference approach supported by a literature study and deductive reasoning supported by a statistical reference method. The main finding is that the energy producers from the V4 group have a common direction of evolution in their strategies. This change is based on a growing share of renewable energy sources to achieve environmental excellence strategies. The lack of renewable energy sector organizations’ strategies translates into disappointment with the goals pursued by these organizations. The significance of this study lies in an explanation of how sustainability strategies compare at a firm and country-level in a proposed classification. The analysis can open future research areas to examine development of strategies in the renewable energy sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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19 pages, 10182 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Diversity and Changes in the Energy Balance in EU Countries

by Tomasz Rokicki and Aleksandra Perkowska

Energies 2021, 14(4), 1098; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14041098 - 19 Feb 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

The main purpose of the paper was to present the energy balance in the EU countries. The specific objectives were to show the concentration and directions of changes in the demand, production, import, and export of energy in the EU countries, to determine the degree of variability (or stability) of these energy balance parameters, and to establish the correlation between the energy balance parameters and economic parameters. All members of the European Union were determinedly selected for research on 31 December 2018 (28 countries). The research period embraced the years 2004–2018. The sources of materials were the literature on the topic and data from Eurostat. Descriptive, tabular, and graphical methods, Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve, coefficient of variation, Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient, and constant-based dynamics indicators were used in the analysis and presentation of materials. It was determined that only the demand for energy and its import in EU countries were nearly related to the economic situation. In turn, exports and production were medium and weakly correlated. In these parameters, economic factors had a smaller impact than other factors, such as political development or the level of energy development in the country. It was also found that the EU countries’ energy imports were characterized by lower volatility than its exports. As a rule, the most significant stabilization in the given parameters occurred in countries with a stable economy, the so-called developed economies, while the most significant volatility was in developing countries. Energy security is of great importance in all EU countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Supplies in the Countries from the Visegrad Group)

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