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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "F: Electrical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2021) | Viewed by 31265

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Prof. Dr. Issouf Fofana

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Power Network Infrastructure (ViAHT), Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
Interests: Electromagnetic compatibility; Electrical engineering; Electrical insulation; Dielectric materials; Problems associated with the transport and distribution of electrical energy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Stephan Brettschneider

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International Research Center on Atmospheric Icing and Power Engineering (CENGIVRE), Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Department of Applied Sciences, 555, Boulevard de l'Université, Chicoutimi, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
Interests: power system protection; power network analysis; HV testing techniques; diagnostic and monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With the growth of the world’s population and faster-developing industries, larger amounts of electric energy are needed. To reduce Joule losses at longer distances, higher transmission voltages are required. Many ultra/extra AC/DC high-voltage transmission projects have been commissioned or are under construction in many countries: Canada (735 kV), Venezuela (800 kV), China (1100 kV), Japan (1100 kV), and India (1200 kV). Understanding the fundamental aspects of outdoor insulation is, therefore, important for properly designing practical HV transmission lines and hardware.

The Special Issue will cover theoretical and practical developments with special emphasis on engineering problems in designing and monitoring of AC/DC high-voltage transmission lines and solutions to mitigate atmospheric conditions influence. The applications of new materials in the novel design of transmission line hardware and perspectives are also concerned.

Topics of interest for special issue include, but are not limited to:

Lightning phenomena and related applications
Long air gap discharges
Switching surges
Insulation coordination
Breakdown and pre-breakdown phenomena in gases
Insulating material efficiency improvement by chemical admixtures
Gas insulated switchgears (GIS)
Measurement, monitoring and diagnostic techniques

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Keywords

Outdoor insulators
Atmospheric icing and pollution-related phenomena
Lightning physics and protection
Discharges in air and gases
Insulation coordination

Related Special Issue

Protection Challenges in Tomorrow’s Grid in Energies

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

7 pages, 227 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Outdoor Insulation and Gas-Insulated Switchgears

by Issouf Fofana and Stephan Brettschneider

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8141; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en15218141 - 01 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1019

Abstract

With the growth of the world’s population and faster-developing industries, larger amounts of electric energy are needed [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

15 pages, 5503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling Surface Electric Discharge Propagation on Polluted Insulators under AC Voltage

by Mohamed Lamine Amrani, Slimane Bouazabia, Issouf Fofana, Fethi Meghnefi, Marouane Jabbari, Djazia Khelil and Amina Boudiaf

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6653; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14206653 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1691

Abstract

In this contribution, a mathematical model allowing for the prediction of the AC surface arc propagation on polluted insulators under non-uniform electric field is proposed. The approach is based on the experimental concept of Claverie and Porcheron. The proposed model, which makes it possible to reproduce the surface electric discharge, includes a condition for arrest of the propagating discharge. The electric field at the tip of the discharge is the key parameter governing its random propagation. A finite element approach allows for mapping of the electric field distribution while the discharge propagation process is simulated in two dimensions. The voltage drop along the arc discharge path at each propagation step is also taken into account. The simulation results are validated against experimental data, taking into account several electro-geometric parameters (distance between electrodes, pollution conductivity, radius of high-voltage electrode, length of the plane electrode). Good agreement between computed and experimental results were obtained for various test configurations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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12 pages, 2327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pollution Flashover Characteristics of Composite Crossarm Insulator with a Large Diameter

by Jing Nan, Hua Li, Xiaodong Wan, Feng Huo and Fuchang Lin

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6491; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14206491 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1696

Abstract

The composite crossarm insulator differs greatly from the suspension insulator in structure and arrangement. This study aims to determine the pollution flashover characteristics of composite crossarm insulators under different voltage grades. Four types of AC composite crossarm insulators with diameters ranging from 100 mm to 450 mm are subjected to artificial pollution test, and then the effects of the surface hydrophobicity state of silicone rubber, core diameter, umbrella structure, arrangement, and insulation distance on the pollution flashover voltage of the composite crossarm insulators are analyzed. Under the pollution grade 0.2/1.0 mg/cm² and voltage grade from 66 kV to 1000 kV, if the silicone rubber surface changes from HC5 to HC6, the pollution flashover voltage of the composite crossarm insulator will increase by 13.5% to 21.0% compared with the hydrophilic surface. If the core diameter changes from 100 mm to 300 mm, the pollution flashover voltage gradient decreases with the increase in core diameter; if the core diameter changes from 300 mm to 450 mm, the pollution flashover voltage gradient increases with core diameter. Under the same insulation height and core diameter, the umbrella structure will have a certain impact on pollution flashover voltage by up to 1.7% to 5.4%. Under the horizontal arrangement, the pollution flashover voltage can increase by 10.5% to 12.1% compared with that under the vertical arrangement. Under the hydrophilic surface and weak hydrophobicity state, the pollution flashover voltage has a linear relationship with the insulation distance. The above results can provide a reference for the structural design and optimization of the composite crossarm insulator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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15 pages, 30404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Countermeasures against Atmospheric Icing of Power Lines over the Past Four Decades and Their Applications into Field Operations

by Stephan Brettschneider and Issouf Fofana

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6291; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14196291 - 02 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2000

Abstract

The reliability and efficiency of power grids directly contribute to the economic well-being and quality of life of citizens in any country. This reliability depends, among other things, on the power lines that are exposed to different kinds of factors such as lightning, pollution, ice storm, wind, etc. In particular, ice and snow are serious threats in various areas of the world. Under certain conditions, outdoor equipment and hardware may experience various problems: cracking, fatigue, wear, flashover, etc. In actual fact, a variety of countermeasures has been proposed over the past decades and a certain number have been applied by utilities in various countries. This contribution presents the status and current trends of different techniques against atmospheric icing of power lines. A snapshot look at some significant development on this topic over the last four decades is addressed. Engineering problems in utilizing these techniques, their applications, and perspectives are also foreseen. The latest up-to-date review papers on the applications and challenges in terms of PhD thesis, journal articles, conference proceedings, technical reports, and web materials are reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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10 pages, 932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Common Perceptions about the Use of Fillers in Silicone Rubber Insulation Housing Composites

by Refat Atef Ghunem, Yazid Hadjadj and Harold Parks

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3655; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14123655 - 19 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1559

Abstract

This paper discusses the lessons learned about fillers that are added to silicone rubber insulation housing composites, in order to improve the erosion resistance against the dry-band arcing are presented and common perceptions. Common practices that employ alumina tri-hydrate are reviewed, including the additional influential effect of the water of hydration in the suppression of the dry-band arcing. The effect of the water of hydration is shown to be dependent on various factors, such as the hydrated filler level and the type of the hydrated filler. More recent paradigms in which hydrated fillers have not been employed are also reviewed. Volume and shield actions of fillers are essential aspects that need to be understood in the design of silicone rubber insulation housing composites for new applications such as HVDC. In addition, the thermal degradation mechanisms of silicone rubber and the corresponding suppression effects of the added fillers are summarized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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15 pages, 5401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Framework to Study the Role of Ground and Fumed Silica Fillers in Suppressing DC Erosion of Silicone Rubber Outdoor Insulation

by Alhaytham Y. Alqudsi, Refat A. Ghunem and Eric David

Energies 2021, 14(12), 3449; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14123449 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1857

Abstract

This paper investigates the effect of ground and fumed silica fillers on suppressing DC erosion in silicone rubber. Fumed silica and ground silica fillers are incorporated in silicone rubber at different loading levels and comparatively analyzed in this study. Outcomes of the +DC inclined plane tracking erosion test indicate a better erosion performance for the fumed silica filled composite despite having a lower thermal conductivity compared to the ground silica composite. Results of the simultaneous thermogravimetric and thermal differential analyses are correlated with inclined plane tracking erosion test outcomes suggesting that fumed silica suppresses depolymerization and promotes radical based crosslinking in silicone rubber. This finding is evident as higher residue is obtained with the fumed silica filler despite being filled at a significantly lower loading level compared to ground silica. The surface residue morphology obtained, and the roughness determined for the tested samples of the composites in the dry-arc resistance test indicate the formation of a coherent residue with the fumed silica filled composite. Such coherent residue could act as a barrier to shield the unaffected material underneath the damaged surface during dry-band arcing, thereby preventing progressive erosion. The outcomes of this study suggest a significant role for fumed silica promoting more interactions with silicone rubber to suppress DC erosion compared to ground silica fillers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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17 pages, 8029 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Monitoring of Dry Bands and Discharge Activities at the Surface of Textured Insulators with AC Clean Fog Test Conditions

by Mohammed El Amine Slama, Maurizio Albano, Abderrahmane Manu Haddad, Ronald T. Waters, Oliver Cwikowski, Ibrahim Iddrissu, Jon Knapper and Oliver Scopes

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2914; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102914 - 18 May 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

The aim of this study is the presentation of the results of an in-lab comparative study of electrical and thermal monitoring of artificially polluted, HTV-textured silicone rubber insulators, with different pollution levels. This work is a preliminary study of an in-situ monitoring of 400 kV SiR textured in a polluted environment. The results showed that the rms leakage current magnitude and pulses, and the average dissipated power depended on the pollution levels and the dry-bands formation. The discharge activity and their nature are governed by the pollution level and the voltage. A differentiation and a quantification between dry-band discharge onset and dry-band arc inception is highlighted. Full article

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19 pages, 4434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Effect of Several Model Configurations on the Transient Response of Gas-Insulated Substation during Fault Events Using an Electromagnetic Field Theory Approach

by Muresan Alexandru, Levente Czumbil, Roberto Andolfato, Hassan Nouri and Dan Doru Micu

Energies 2020, 13(23), 6231; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13236231 - 27 Nov 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2277

Abstract

Assessment of very fast transient overvoltage (VFTO) requires good knowledge of the behavior of gas-insulated substation when subjected to very high frequencies. The international standards and guidelines generically present only recommendations regarding the VFTO suppression without a technical and mathematical background. Therefore, to provide an accurate image regarding the critical locations across a gas-insulated substation (GIS) from a transient response point of view, a suitable modeling technique has to be identified and developed for the substation. The paper aimed to provide an accurate assessment of the GIS holistic transient response through an electromagnetic field theory (EMF) approach. This modeling technique has always been a difficult task when it came to gas-insulated substations. However, recent studies have shown that through suitable Computer-aided design models, representing the GIS metallic ensemble, accurate results can be obtained. The paper investigated several simplifications of the computational domain considering different gas-insulated substation configurations in order to identify a suitable modeling approach without any unnecessary computational effort. The analysis was performed by adopting the partial equivalent element circuit (PEEC) approach embedded into XGSLab software package. Obtained results could provide useful hints for grounding grid designers regarding the proper development and implementation of transient ground potential rise (TGPR) mitigation techniques across a gas-insulated substation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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12 pages, 3576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Image Characteristic Extraction of Ice-Covered Outdoor Insulator for Monitoring Icing Degree

by Yong Liu, Qiran Li, Masoud Farzaneh and B. X. Du

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5305; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13205305 - 12 Oct 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1630

Abstract

Serious ice accretion will cause structural problems and ice flashover accidents, which result in outdoor insulator string operating problems in winter conditions. Previous investigations have revealed that the thicker and longer insulators are covered with ice, the icing degree becomes worse and icing accident probability increases. Therefore, an image processing method was proposed to extract the characteristics of the icicle length and Rg (ratio of the air gap length to the insulator length) of ice-covered insulators for monitoring the operation of iced outdoor insulator strings. The tests were conducted at the artificial climate room of CIGELE Laboratories recommended by IEEE Standard 1783/2009. The surface phenomena of the insulator during the ice accretion process were recorded by using a high-speed video camera. In the view of the ice in the background of the picture of fuzzy features and high image noise, a direct equalization algorithm is used to enhance the grayscale iced image contrast. The median filtering method is conducted for reducing image noise and sharpening the image edge. The maximum entropy threshold segmentation algorithm is put forward to extract the insulators and its surface ice from the background. Then, the modified Canny operator edge detection algorithm is selected to trace the boundaries of objects through the extraction of information about attributes of the endpoints of edges. After we obtained the improved Canny edge detection image for both of the ice-covered insulators and non-iced insulators, the icing thickness can be obtained by calculating the difference between the edge of the non-iced insulators image and the edge of the iced insulator image. Besides, in order to identify the icing degree of the insulators more accurately, this paper determines the location of icicles by using the region growth method. After that, the icicle length and Rg can be obtained to monitor the icing degree of the insulator. It will be helpful to improve the ability to judge the accident risk of insulators in power systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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32 pages, 18692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Protective Performance of Surge Arresters against Indirect Lightning Strikes via an Inductor-Based Filter

by Mahdi Pourakbari-Kasmaei and Matti Lehtonen

Energies 2020, 13(18), 4754; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13184754 - 11 Sep 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2532

Abstract

Preventing the medium voltage (MV) transformer fault by protecting transformers against indirect lightning strikes plays a crucial role in enhancing the continuous service to electricity consumers. Surge arresters, if selected properly, are efficient devices in providing adequate protection for MV transformers against transient overvoltage impulses while preventing unwanted service interruptions. However, compared to other protective devices such as the spark gap, their prices are relatively high. The higher the surge arrester rating and energy absorption capacity are, the higher the prices go. This paper proposes an inductor-based filter to limit the energy pushed into the surge arrester, and consequently to prevent any unwanted failure. An energy-controlled switch is proposed to simulate the fault of the surge arrester. Surge arresters with different ratings, e.g., 12 kV, 18 kV, 24 kV, 30 kV, 36 kV, and 42 kV with two different classes of energy, namely, type a and type b, are tested under different indirect lightning impulses such as 100 kV, 125 kV, 150 kV, 175 kV, 200 kV, 250 kV, 300 kV, and 500 kV. Furthermore, these surge arresters are equipped with different filter sizes of 100

μ H

, 250

μ H

, 500

μ H

, and 1

mH

. Results prove that equipping a surge arrester with a proper filter size enhances the performance of the surge arrester significantly such that a high rating and somewhat expensive surge arrester can be replaced by a low rating and cheap surge arrester while providing similar or even better protective performance for MV transformers. Therefore, such configurations not only enhance the protective capability of surge arrester, but also reduce the planning and operating costs of MV networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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11 pages, 2417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lessons to Learn from Post-Installation Pollution Levels Assessment of Some Distribution Insulators

by Issouf Fofana, Janvier Sylvestre N’cho, Amidou Betie, Epiphane Hounton, Fethi Meghnefi and Kouba Marie Lucia Yapi

Energies 2020, 13(16), 4064; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13164064 - 06 Aug 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2317

Abstract

Among the main causes of outdoor insulation failures is their poor specifications in terms of leakage distances. This happens when the selected criteria are unable to cope with all the stresses imposed by the changes in environmental pollutions. Therefore, it is important for utilities to fully understand the actual pollution characteristics of the service environment in which the insulators are operating. In this paper, the pollution severity and performance of some 13.2 kV ceramic insulators, sampled in different areas of a Canadian aluminum factory, are assessed. The investigations were performed taking into account the influence of air humidity. Various characteristics were investigated to assess the pollution levels of the insulators, such as equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD) and non-soluble deposit density (NSDD), surface resistance, and leakage current characteristics (density, 3rd harmonic amplitude, and phase). It was witnessed that the insulators, collected around the factory, were much more polluted in comparison to the initial expectation. The pollution level should not be considered static due to the environmental parameters’ dynamics. Lessons to learn: the reliability of an electrical grid is dependent on components whose own reliability is strongly affected by external factors, of which there is often a poor awareness. If care is not taken to re-evaluate the post-installation pollution levels of the insulators, the light may simply turn out! Full article

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21 pages, 16732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Partial Discharge Behaviour of a Protrusion in Gas-Insulated Systems under DC Voltage Stress

by Thomas Götz, Hannah Kirchner and Karsten Backhaus

Energies 2020, 13(12), 3102; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13123102 - 16 Jun 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3152

Abstract

High reliability, independence from environmental conditions, and the compact design of gas-insulated systems will lead to a wide application in future high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems. Reliable operation of these assets can be ensured by applying meaningful and robust partial discharge diagnosis during development tests, acceptance tests, or operation. Therefore, the discharge behavior must be well understood. This paper aims to contribute to this understanding by investigating the partial discharge behavior of a distorted weakly inhomogeneous electrode arrangement in sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) and synthetic air under high DC voltage stress. In order to get a better understanding, the partial discharge current is measured under the variation of the insulation gas pressure, the gas type, the electric field strength, and the voltage polarity. Derived from this, a classification of the different discharge types is performed. As a result, four different discharge types can be categorized depending on the experimental parameters: discharge impulses, discharge impulses with superimposed pulseless discharges, discharge impulses with superimposed pulseless discharges, and subsequent smaller discharges and pulseless discharges. Concluding suggestions for partial discharge measurements under DC voltage stress are given: recommendations for the necessary measurement time, the applied voltage and polarity, and useful measurement techniques. Full article

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12 pages, 3009 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Pollution Prediction Model of Insulators Based on Atmospheric Environmental Parameters

by Siyi Chen and Zhijin Zhang

Energies 2020, 13(12), 3066; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en13123066 - 13 Jun 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1806

Abstract

Pollution-induced flashover is one of the most serious power accidents, and the pollution degree of insulators depends on atmospheric environmental parameters. The pollution models used in the power system research are usually static, but the environmental parameters are dynamic. Therefore, the study on the dynamic pollution prediction model is of great importance. In this paper, the dynamic pollution prediction model of insulators based on atmospheric environmental parameters was built, and insulators’ structure coefficients were proposed based on the model. Firstly, the insulator dynamic pollution model based on meteorological data (PM2.5, PM10, TSP (total suspended particulate), and wind speed) was proposed, and natural pollution tests were also conducted as verification tests. Furthermore, insulator structure coefficients c1, c2 (c1: pollution ratio of U210BP/170 to XP-160; c2: calculated pollution ratio of U210BP/170T to XP-160) were then obtained, and their influence factors were discussed. At last, insulator structure coefficients were calculated, and it can be seen that the calculated error of insulator structure coefficients was acceptable, with the average re (relative errors) at 9.0% (c1) and 13.5% (c2), which verifies the feasibility of the model. Based on the results in this paper, the NSDD (non-soluble deposit density) of insulators with different structures can be obtained using the insulators’ structure coefficient and the reference XP-160 insulator’s NSDD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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Review

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29 pages, 3165 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application and Suitability of Polymeric Materials as Insulators in Electrical Equipment

by SK Manirul Haque, Jorge Alfredo Ardila-Rey, Yunusa Umar, Abdullahi Abubakar Mas’ud, Firdaus Muhammad-Sukki, Binta Hadi Jume, Habibur Rahman and Nurul Aini Bani

Energies 2021, 14(10), 2758; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/en14102758 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4067

Abstract

In this paper, the applications of thermoplastic, thermoset polymers, and a brief description of the functions of each subsystem are reviewed. The synthetic route and characteristics of polymeric materials are presented. The mechanical properties of polymers such as impact behavior, tensile test, bending test, and thermal properties like mold stress-relief distortion, generic thermal indices, relative thermal capability, and relative thermal index are mentioned. Furthermore, this paper covers the electrical behavior of polymers, mainly their dielectric strength. Different techniques for evaluating polymers’ suitability applied for electrical insulation are covered, such as partial discharge and high current arc resistance to ignition. The polymeric materials and processes used for manufacturing cables at different voltage ranges are described, and their applications to high voltage DC systems (HVDC) are discussed. The evolution and limitations of polymeric materials for electrical application and their advantages and future trends are mentioned. However, to reduce the high cost of filler networks and improve their technical properties, new techniques need to be developed. To overcome limitations associated with the accuracy of the techniques used for quantifying residual stresses in polymers, new techniques such as indentation are used with higher force at the stressed location. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Outdoor Insulation and Gas Insulated Switchgears)

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