Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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Article

8 pages, 1713 KiB  
Article
Invasion of Emerald Ash Borer Agrilus planipennis and Ash Dieback Pathogen Hymenoscyphus fraxineus in Ukraine—A Concerted Action
by Kateryna Davydenko, Yuriy Skrylnyk, Oleksandr Borysenko, Audrius Menkis, Natalia Vysotska, Valentyna Meshkova, Åke Olson, Malin Elfstrand and Rimvys Vasaitis
Forests 2022, 13(5), 789; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050789 - 19 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3562
Abstract
Emerald Ash Borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis, is a beetle that originates from East Asia. Upon invasion to North America in the early 2000s, it killed untold millions of ash trees. In European Russia, EAB was first detected in Moscow in 2003 and [...] Read more.
Emerald Ash Borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis, is a beetle that originates from East Asia. Upon invasion to North America in the early 2000s, it killed untold millions of ash trees. In European Russia, EAB was first detected in Moscow in 2003 and proved to have the potential to also kill native European ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The beetle has since spread in all geographic directions, establishing itself in eastern Ukraine by 2019 and possessing potential for further westward spread towards the EU. Apart from the approaching EAB, F. excelsior is currently threatened by the dieback disease (ADB) caused by the invasive ascomycete fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus. The infestation by EAB combined with ADB infection is expected to be more lethal than either of them alone, yet the potential consequences are unknown. To date, eastern Ukraine represents the geographic area in which both invasions overlap, thus providing the opportunity for related investigations. The aims of the study were to investigate: (i) the EAB expansion range in Ukraine, (ii) the relative susceptibility of F. excelsior and American ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) to EAB and ADB, and (iii) the combined effect/impact on ash condition imposed by both the pest and disease in the area subjected to the invasion. The results have demonstrated that (i) the invasion of EAB is currently expanding both in terms of newly infested trees and invaded geographic area; (ii) F. excelsior is more resistant to EAB than F. pennsylvanica, while F. excelsior is more susceptible to ADB than F. pennsylvanica; and (iii) the infection by ADB is likely to predispose F. excelsior to the infestation by EAB. It was concluded that inventory and mapping of surviving F. excelsior, affected by both ADB and EAB, is necessary to acquire genetic resources for the work on strategic, long-term restoration of F. excelsior in devastated areas, thereby tackling a possible invasion of EAB to the EU. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Management of Forest Pests and Diseases)
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13 pages, 2700 KiB  
Article
Comparing Geography and Severity of Managed Wildfires in California and the Southwest USA before and after the Implementation of the 2009 Policy Guidance
by Jose M. Iniguez, Alexander M. Evans, Sepideh Dadashi, Jesse D. Young, Marc D. Meyer, Andrea E. Thode, Shaula J. Hedwall, Sarah M. McCaffrey, Stephen D. Fillmore and Rachel Bean
Forests 2022, 13(5), 793; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050793 - 19 May 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3752
Abstract
Managed wildfires, i.e., naturally ignited wildfires that are managed for resource benefits, have the potential to reduce fuel loads, minimize the effects of future wildfires, and restore critical natural processes across many forest landscapes. In the United States, the 2009 federal wildland fire [...] Read more.
Managed wildfires, i.e., naturally ignited wildfires that are managed for resource benefits, have the potential to reduce fuel loads, minimize the effects of future wildfires, and restore critical natural processes across many forest landscapes. In the United States, the 2009 federal wildland fire policy guidance was designed to provide greater flexibility in the use of managed wildfires, but the effects of this policy on wildfires in the western US are not yet fully understood. Our goal was to compare managed and full suppression wildfires and to also analyze the differences between managed wildfires across space (Arizona/New Mexico and California) and time (before and after 2009) using four metrics for each wildfire: (1) distance to wilderness, (2) distance to the wildland–urban interface (WUI), (3) the percentage of area burned with high severity, and (4) the number of land management agencies. Across the study area, we found that managed wildfires were significantly closer to wilderness areas, were farther from the WUI, had a lower percentage of area that was burned at high severity, and had fewer agencies involved in managing the fire compared to full suppression wildfires. In California, managed wildfires occurred closer to wilderness and had a larger percentage of high-severity burn area compared to those in the southwest US (Arizona and New Mexico). Within each region, however, there were no significant geographic differences between managed wildfires before and after the implementation of the 2009 policy guidance. Despite the greater flexibility of the 2009 policy guidance, the basic geographic properties of managed wildfires in these two regions have not changed. As the climate warms and droughts intensify, the use of managed wildfires will need to expand during favorable weather conditions in order to address the threat of large and uncharacteristic wildfires to people and ecosystems. Full article
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24 pages, 5058 KiB  
Article
The Historical Complexity of Tree Height Growth Dynamic Associated with Climate Change in Western North America
by Yassine Messaoud, Anya Reid, Nadezhda M. Tchebakova, Jack A. Goldman and Annika Hofgaard
Forests 2022, 13(5), 738; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050738 - 09 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2408
Abstract
The effect of climate on tree growth has received increased interest in the context of climate change. However, most studies have been limited geographically and with respect to species. Here, sixteen tree species of western North America were used to investigate the response [...] Read more.
The effect of climate on tree growth has received increased interest in the context of climate change. However, most studies have been limited geographically and with respect to species. Here, sixteen tree species of western North America were used to investigate the response of trees to climate change. Forest inventory data from 36,944 stands established between 1600 and 1968 throughout western North America were summarized. The height growth (top height at a breast-height age of 50 years) of healthy dominant and co-dominant trees was related to annual and summer temperatures, the annual and summer Palmer Drought Severity Indexes (PDSIs), and the tree establishment date (ED). Climate-induced height growth patterns were then tested to determine links to the spatial environment (geographic locations and soil properties), the species’ range (coastal, interior, or both), and traits (shade tolerance and leaf form). Analysis was performed using a linear mixed model (total species) and a general linear model (species scale). Climate change was globally beneficial, except for Alaska yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach), and growth patterns were magnified for coastal-ranged, high-shade-tolerant, and broadleaf species, and mostly at the northernmost extents of these species’ ranges. Nevertheless, growth patterns were more complex with respect to soil properties. A growth decline for some species was observed at higher latitudes and elevations and was possibly related to increased cloudiness, precipitation, or drought (in interior areas). These results highlight the spatio-temporal complexity of the growth response to recent global climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Species Distribution and Diversity under Climate Change)
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20 pages, 4445 KiB  
Article
An Ecological-Economic Approach to Assess Impacts of the Expansion of Eucalyptus Plantations in Agroforest Landscapes of Northern Ethiopia
by Dagm Abate, José G. Borges, Susete Marques and Vladimir Bushenkov
Forests 2022, 13(5), 686; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050686 - 28 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2740
Abstract
The conversion of fertile croplands to Eucalyptus woodlots in Ethiopian highlands, due to its business attractiveness to smallholders, raises concerns related to food production, water resources, carbon and other ecosystem services. This study was therefore designed to examine land allocation and plantation management [...] Read more.
The conversion of fertile croplands to Eucalyptus woodlots in Ethiopian highlands, due to its business attractiveness to smallholders, raises concerns related to food production, water resources, carbon and other ecosystem services. This study was therefore designed to examine land allocation and plantation management decisions. Our emphasis was on the analysis of tradeoffs between the economic gains obtained from harvesting Eucalyptus timber and food production, carbon and water use. For that purpose, we considered a 1987 ha agroforest landscape in the Amhara region, Northern Ethiopia. With a planning horizon covering nine one-year periods, we developed and used nine Model I single objective linear programming (LP) models, and analyzed tradeoffs between objectives (e.g., land expectation value (LEV), Carbon, volume of ending inventory (VolEI), crop production and water use) using an LP-based Pareto frontier approach. The study revealed that the objective of maximizing the total economic gain from the sale of Eucalyptus wood poles favored a complete conversion of the available cropland into Eucalyptus woodlots. To meet the minimum annual crop production/consumption/requirements of households in the study area, the land under Eucalyptus should be limited to 1772 ha, with a sequestration potential of 1.5 to 1.57 × 107 kg yr−1 of carbon in the aboveground biomass. However, this land cover limit should be decreased to 921 ha so as to limit the total annual water use (for biomass production) below the amount available from rainfall (11,000 m3 ha−1 yr−1). Moreover, the study highlighted that maximizing the harvested wood volume or LEV would come at the cost of a decreased aboveground carbon stock and volume of ending inventory and higher total water use. It also provided alternative optimal Pareto-front points, among which decision makers will be able to select their preferred targets. The current study also showed the potential for the application of Pareto frontier approaches to support the development of effective ecological/economic management strategies and the design of land use policies in an Ethiopian context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiple-Use and Ecosystem Services of Forests)
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19 pages, 5872 KiB  
Article
Mangrove Forests in Ecuador: A Two-Decade Analysis
by Ramiro Morocho, Ivonne González, Tiago Osorio Ferreira and Xosé Luis Otero
Forests 2022, 13(5), 656; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050656 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3816
Abstract
Mangroves are one of the most important ecosystems especially due to the services they provide, but in contrast are one of the most threatened by human activities at a global level. In Ecuador, mangrove forests are currently fragile and threatened due to the [...] Read more.
Mangroves are one of the most important ecosystems especially due to the services they provide, but in contrast are one of the most threatened by human activities at a global level. In Ecuador, mangrove forests are currently fragile and threatened due to the great anthropic pressure, which has largely reduced the area they occupy. However, there is already evidence that certain actions are contributing both to their conservation and the recovery of the lost mangrove area. In this study, we assessed the multitemporal dynamics of changes in mangrove cover in four coastal provinces of the country over a period of 20 years (1998–2018) based on remote sensing data analyzed using GIS tools. Our results showed that the area affected by mangrove forest destruction reached its maximum during the 1998–2010 period, when 4.56% (194.57 km2) of the mangrove forest was lost. This situation especially affected the provinces of El Oro and Guayas. The main cause for the loss of mangrove cover was the expansion of shrimp farms, followed by agriculture and construction. However, a slight recovery of ~2.9% has been observed, although loss remains constant. Mangrove ecosystem conservation policies, mainly applied to zones within protected areas; the establishment of use and custody agreements and the halt of shrimp farm expansion; the development of mangrove forests on areas with sediment deposits; and natural mangrove recovery processes are key factors for mangrove restoration. These results suggest that it is possible to continue restoring mangrove cover and thus maintain some of the main ecosystem services they provide for the benefit of humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mangrove Wetland Restoration and Rehabilitation)
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23 pages, 11601 KiB  
Article
Seed Dispersal Models for Natural Regeneration: A Review and Prospects
by Moonil Kim, Seonghun Lee, Songhee Lee, Koong Yi, Hyung-Sub Kim, Sanghoon Chung, Junmo Chung, Hyun Seop Kim and Tae Kyung Yoon
Forests 2022, 13(5), 659; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13050659 - 23 Apr 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6119
Abstract
Natural regeneration in forest management, which relies on artificial planting, is considered a desirable alternative to reforestation. However, there are large uncertainties regarding the natural regeneration processes, such as seed production, seed dispersal, and seedling establishment. Among these processes, seed dispersal by wind [...] Read more.
Natural regeneration in forest management, which relies on artificial planting, is considered a desirable alternative to reforestation. However, there are large uncertainties regarding the natural regeneration processes, such as seed production, seed dispersal, and seedling establishment. Among these processes, seed dispersal by wind must be modeled accurately to minimize the risks of natural regeneration. This study aimed to (1) review the main mechanisms of seed dispersal models, their characteristics, and their applications and (2) suggest prospects for seed dispersal models to increase the predictability of natural regeneration. With improving computing and observation systems, the modeling technique for seed dispersal by wind has continued to progress steadily from a simple empirical model to the Eulerian-Lagrangian model. Mechanistic modeling approaches with a dispersal kernel have been widely used and have attempted to be directly incorporated into spatial models. Despite the rapid development of various wind-dispersal models, only a few studies have considered their application in natural regeneration. We identified the potential attributes of seed dispersal modeling that cause high uncertainties and poor simulation results in natural regeneration scenarios: topography, pre-processing of wind data, and various inherent complexities in seed dispersal processes. We suggest that seed dispersal models can be further improved by incorporating (1) seed abscission mechanisms by wind, (2) spatiotemporally complex wind environments, (3) collisions with the canopy or ground during seed flight, and (4) secondary dispersal, long-distance dispersal, and seed predation. Interdisciplinary research linking climatology, biophysics, and forestry would help improve the prediction of seed dispersal and its impact on natural regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Forestry and Restoration)
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25 pages, 6741 KiB  
Article
Climate Adaptation, Drought Susceptibility, and Genomic-Informed Predictions of Future Climate Refugia for the Australian Forest Tree Eucalyptus globulus
by Jakob B. Butler, Peter A. Harrison, René E. Vaillancourt, Dorothy A. Steane, Josquin F. G. Tibbits and Brad M. Potts
Forests 2022, 13(4), 575; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13040575 - 05 Apr 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2834
Abstract
Understanding the capacity of forest tree species to adapt to climate change is of increasing importance for managing forest genetic resources. Through a genomics approach, we modelled spatial variation in climate adaptation within the Australian temperate forest tree Eucalyptus globulus, identified putative [...] Read more.
Understanding the capacity of forest tree species to adapt to climate change is of increasing importance for managing forest genetic resources. Through a genomics approach, we modelled spatial variation in climate adaptation within the Australian temperate forest tree Eucalyptus globulus, identified putative climate drivers of this genomic variation, and predicted locations of future climate refugia and populations at-risk of future maladaptation. Using 812,158 SNPs across 130 individuals from 30 populations (i.e., localities) spanning the species’ natural range, a gradientForest algorithm found 1177 SNPs associated with locality variation in home-site climate (climate-SNPs), putatively linking them to climate adaptation. Very few climate-SNPs were associated with population-level variation in drought susceptibility, signalling the multi-faceted nature and complexity of climate adaptation. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed 24% of the climate-SNP variation could be explained by annual precipitation, isothermality, and maximum temperature of the warmest month. Spatial predictions of the RDA climate vectors associated with climate-SNPs allowed mapping of genomically informed climate selective surfaces across the species’ range under contemporary and projected future climates. These surfaces suggest over 50% of the current distribution of E. globulus will be outside the modelled adaptive range by 2070 and at risk of climate maladaptation. Such surfaces present a new integrated approach for natural resource managers to capture adaptive genetic variation and plan translocations in the face of climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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24 pages, 4570 KiB  
Article
Detecting Coastal Wetland Degradation by Combining Remote Sensing and Hydrologic Modeling
by Keqi He, Yu Zhang, Wenhong Li, Ge Sun and Steve McNulty
Forests 2022, 13(3), 411; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13030411 - 03 Mar 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3928
Abstract
Sea-level rise and climate change stresses pose increasing threats to coastal wetlands that are vital to wildlife habitats, carbon sequestration, water supply, and other ecosystem services with global significance. However, existing studies are limited in individual sites, and large-scale mapping of coastal wetland [...] Read more.
Sea-level rise and climate change stresses pose increasing threats to coastal wetlands that are vital to wildlife habitats, carbon sequestration, water supply, and other ecosystem services with global significance. However, existing studies are limited in individual sites, and large-scale mapping of coastal wetland degradation patterns over a long period is rare. Our study developed a new framework to detect spatial and temporal patterns of coastal wetland degradation by analyzing fine-scale, long-term remotely sensed Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data. Then, this framework was tested to track the degradation of coastal wetlands at the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge (ARNWR) in North Carolina, United States, during the period from 1995 to 2019. We identified six types of coastal wetland degradation in the study area. Most of the detected degradation was located within 2 km from the shoreline and occurred in the past five years. Further, we used a state-of-the-art coastal hydrologic model, PIHM-Wetland, to investigate key hydrologic processes/variables that control the coastal wetland degradation. The temporal and spatial distributions of simulated coastal flooding and saltwater intrusion confirmed the location and timing of wetland degradation detected by remote sensing. The combined method also quantified the possible critical thresholds of water tables for wetland degradation. The remote sensing–hydrologic model integrated scheme proposed in this study provides a new tool for detecting and understanding coastal wetland degradation mechanisms. Our study approach can also be extended to other coastal wetland regions to understand how climate change and sea-level rise impact wetland transformations. Full article
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21 pages, 2592 KiB  
Article
Combustion of Aboveground Wood from Live Trees in Megafires, CA, USA
by Mark E. Harmon, Chad T. Hanson and Dominick A. DellaSala
Forests 2022, 13(3), 391; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13030391 - 27 Feb 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7132
Abstract
Biomass combustion is a major biogeochemical process, but uncertain in magnitude. We examined multiple levels of organization (twigs, branches, trees, stands, and landscapes) in large, severe forest fires to see how combustion rates for live aboveground woody parts varied with tree species, size, [...] Read more.
Biomass combustion is a major biogeochemical process, but uncertain in magnitude. We examined multiple levels of organization (twigs, branches, trees, stands, and landscapes) in large, severe forest fires to see how combustion rates for live aboveground woody parts varied with tree species, size, and fire severity in Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) and mixed conifer-dominated forests of the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. In high severity fire patches, most combustion loss was from branches < 2 cm diameter; in low to moderate severity patches, most was from bole charring. Combustion rates decreased as fire severity declined and with increasing tree size. Pinus species had little branch combustion, leading them to have ≈50% the combustion rate of other taxa. Combustion rates could be 100% for small branch segments and up to 57% for small tree aboveground woody biomass in high severity fire patches. However, combustion rates are very low overall at the stand (0.1%–3.2%) and landscape level (0.6%–1.8%), because large trees with low combustion rates comprise the majority of biomass, and high severity fire patches are less than half of the area burned. Our findings of low live wood combustion rates have important implications for policies related to wildfire emissions and forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 3022 KiB  
Article
Fungal and Bacterial Communities in Tuber melanosporum Plantations from Northern Spain
by Celia Herrero de Aza, Sergio Armenteros, James McDermott, Stefano Mauceri, Jaime Olaizola, María Hernández-Rodríguez and Olaya Mediavilla
Forests 2022, 13(3), 385; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13030385 - 26 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4254
Abstract
Tuber melanosporum (Ascomycota, Pezizales) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus that produces highly appreciated hypogeous fruiting bodies called black truffles. The aim of this paper was to research the composition of ectomycorrhiza-associated fungal and bacterial communities in T. melanosporum oak plantations. Results of this paper [...] Read more.
Tuber melanosporum (Ascomycota, Pezizales) is an ectomycorrhizal fungus that produces highly appreciated hypogeous fruiting bodies called black truffles. The aim of this paper was to research the composition of ectomycorrhiza-associated fungal and bacterial communities in T. melanosporum oak plantations. Results of this paper showed the competitive effect of T. melanosporum on other fungal species, especially other mycorrhizal and pathogenic species. T. melanosporum was shown to be associated mainly with bacteria, some of them important for their properties as mycorrhizal helper bacteria. A dendrogram analysis of co-occurrence showed that T. melanosporum tended to co-occur with the following bacteria species: Singulisphaera limicola, Nannocistis excedens and Sporosarcina globispora. In addition, it was linked to fungal species such as Mortierella elongata, M. minutissima, Cryptococcus uzbekistanensis, C. chernovii and C. aerius. This study provides an exhaustive analysis of the diversity, structure and composition of fungal and bacterial communities associated with T. melanosporum to enhance understanding of the biology, composition and role of these communities in truffle plantations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soil–Plant–Microorganisms Interactions)
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27 pages, 3949 KiB  
Article
Experimental Characterization of Particulate and Gaseous Emissions from Biomass Burning of Six Mediterranean Species and Litter
by Enrica Nestola, Gregorio Sgrigna, Emanuele Pallozzi, Loredana Caccavale, Gabriele Guidolotti and Carlo Calfapietra
Forests 2022, 13(2), 322; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020322 - 16 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3431
Abstract
Wildfires across the Mediterranean ecosystems are associated with safety concerns due to their emissions. The type of biomass determines the composition of particulate matter (PM) and gaseous compounds emitted during the fire event. This study investigated simulated fire events and analysed biomass samples [...] Read more.
Wildfires across the Mediterranean ecosystems are associated with safety concerns due to their emissions. The type of biomass determines the composition of particulate matter (PM) and gaseous compounds emitted during the fire event. This study investigated simulated fire events and analysed biomass samples of six Mediterranean species and litter in a combustion chamber. The main aims are the characterization of PM realized through scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDX), the quantification of gaseous emissions through gas chromatography (GC-MS) and, consequently, identification of the species that are potentially more dangerous. For PM, three size fractions were considered (PM10, 2.5 and 1), and their chemical composition was used for particle source-apportionment. For gaseous components, the CO, CO2, benzene, toluene and xylene (BTXs) emitted were quantified. All samples were described and compared based on their peculiar particulate and gaseous emissions. The primary results show that (a) Acacia saligna was noticeable for the highest number of particles emitted and remarkable values of KCl; (b) tree species were related to the fine windblown particles as canopies intercept PM10 and reemit it during burning; (c) shrub species were related to the particles resuspended from soil; and (d) benzene and toluene were the dominant aromatic compounds emitted. Finally, the most dangerous species identified during burning were Acacia saligna, for the highest number of particles emitted, and Pistacia lentiscus for its high density of particles, the presence of anthropogenic markers, and the highest emissions of all gaseous compounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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12 pages, 2357 KiB  
Article
Forest Structure and Composition Are Critical to Hurricane Mortality
by Jiaying Zhang, Tamara Heartsill-Scalley and Rafael L. Bras
Forests 2022, 13(2), 202; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020202 - 28 Jan 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2957
Abstract
Hurricanes can cause severe damage to tropical forests. To understand the nature of hurricane impacts, we analyze and compare immediate effects from category-4 hurricane María in 2017 and category-3 hurricane Hugo in 1989 at Bisley Experimental Watersheds (BEW) in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, [...] Read more.
Hurricanes can cause severe damage to tropical forests. To understand the nature of hurricane impacts, we analyze and compare immediate effects from category-4 hurricane María in 2017 and category-3 hurricane Hugo in 1989 at Bisley Experimental Watersheds (BEW) in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. We show that hurricane María caused lower mortality than hurricane Hugo, even though hurricane María was a stronger event with higher sustained wind. The lower mortality was due to the combination of lower accumulated cyclone energy at the site and more wind-resistant forest structure and composition at the time of disturbance. We compare our study site with a nearby location that has the same forest type, Luquillo Forest Dynamics Plot (LFDP), and describe the similarities and differences of mortality and impact factors between the two sites during the two events. During hurricane Hugo, LFDP experienced much lower mortality than BEW, even though the accumulated cyclone energy at LFDP was higher. The difference in mortality was due to contrasting forest structure and composition of the two sites. Our results demonstrate that forest structure and composition at the time of the disturbance were more critical to hurricane-induced mortality at the two sites than accumulated cyclone energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards and Risk Management)
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16 pages, 6018 KiB  
Article
Restoration Trajectories and Ecological Thresholds during Planted Urban Forest Successional Development
by K. J. Wallace, Bruce D. Clarkson and Bridgette Farnworth
Forests 2022, 13(2), 199; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020199 - 27 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4727
Abstract
Successfully reconstructing functioning forest ecosystems from early-successional tree plantings is a long-term process that often lacks monitoring. Many projects lack observations of critical successional information, such as the restoration trajectory of key ecosystem attributes and ecological thresholds, which signal that management actions are [...] Read more.
Successfully reconstructing functioning forest ecosystems from early-successional tree plantings is a long-term process that often lacks monitoring. Many projects lack observations of critical successional information, such as the restoration trajectory of key ecosystem attributes and ecological thresholds, which signal that management actions are needed. Here, we present results from a 65 ha urban temperate rainforest restoration project in Aotearoa New Zealand, where trees have been planted annually on public retired pasture land, forming a 14 years chronosequence. In 25 plots (100 m2 each), we measured key ecosystem attributes that typically change during forest succession: native tree basal area, canopy openness, non-native herbaceous ground cover, leaf litter cover, ground fern cover, dead trees, and native tree seedling abundance and richness. We also monitored for the appearance of physiologically-sensitive plant guilds (moss, ferns, and epiphytes) that may be considered ecological indicators of succession. Linear regression models identified relationships between all but one of the key ecosystem attributes and forest age (years since planting). Further, using breakpoint analysis, we found that ecological thresholds occurred in many ecosystem attributes during their restoration trajectories: reduced canopy openness (99.8% to 3.4%; 9.6 years threshold), non-native herbaceous ground cover (100% to 0; 10.9 years threshold), leaf litter cover (0 to 95%; 10.8 years threshold), and increased tree deaths (0 to 4; 11 years threshold). Further, juvenile native plant recruitment increased (tree seedling abundance 0 to ~150 per 4 m2), tree seedling species richness (0 to 13 per 100 m2) and epiphytes colonized (0 to 3 individuals per 100 m2). These and other physiologically-sensitive plant guilds appeared around the 11 years mark, confirming their utility as ecological indicators during monitoring. Our results indicate that measurable, ecological thresholds occur during the restoration trajectories of ecosystem attributes, and they are predictable. If detected, these thresholds can inform project timelines and, along with use of ecological indicators, inform management interventions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forestry and Ecological Restoration)
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20 pages, 3331 KiB  
Article
Upward Treeline Shifts in Two Regions of Subarctic Russia Are Governed by Summer Thermal and Winter Snow Conditions
by Andrey A. Grigoriev, Yulia V. Shalaumova, Sergey O. Vyukhin, Dmitriy S. Balakin, Vladimir V. Kukarskikh, Arina A. Vyukhina, Jesús Julio Camarero and Pavel A. Moiseev
Forests 2022, 13(2), 174; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020174 - 24 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3051
Abstract
Climate warming impacts on alpine treeline dynamics. However, we still lack robust assessments of the long-term impacts of climate on tree recruitment at the treeline, particularly in remote areas such as the subarctic regions of Russia subjected to different climate influences. We expected [...] Read more.
Climate warming impacts on alpine treeline dynamics. However, we still lack robust assessments of the long-term impacts of climate on tree recruitment at the treeline, particularly in remote areas such as the subarctic regions of Russia subjected to different climate influences. We expected that the treelines in two regions may have different features and dynamics patterns. We analyzed climate variables and assessed treeline dynamics by quantifying recruitment using the tree rings of ca. 7000 trees of four species (Betula pubescens Ehrh. ssp. tortuosa, Pinus sylvestris L., Picea abies Ledeb. ssp. obovata, Larix gmelinii Rupr.) along 14 altitudinal transects (series of study plots). We compared the Khibiny Massif (Kola Peninsula) and the western Putorana Plateau, subjected to oceanic and continental influences, respectively. In both regions, summers became warmer, and winters became snowier during the past century. At the low part of the treeline ecotone, tree recruitment has slowly increased since the mid-18th century at the Putorana Plateau and the mid-19th century at the Khibiny but accelerated in the early 20th century at both regions and reached a maximum peak in the second half of the past century. Treeline encroachment intensified in the 1930s at the Khibiny and the 1950s at the Putorana Plateau. Trees encroached in the tundra leading to upward treeline shifts in the late 20th century. The slope exposure affected the rates of treeline shift with higher upward advances on southern-oriented slopes. Tree recruitment and early-winter precipitation were positively correlated. The differences in species composition, treeline altitude and influences of slope orientation on treeline dynamics can be explained primarily by differences in the degree of continentality. The abundance of saplings in both regions allows the future encroachment of trees into tundra and further treeline upward shifts to be forecast. Full article
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14 pages, 1747 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of a 36K SNP Array for Radiata Pine (Pinus radiata D.Don)
by Natalie Graham, Emily Telfer, Tancred Frickey, Gancho Slavov, Ahmed Ismael, Jaroslav Klápště and Heidi Dungey
Forests 2022, 13(2), 176; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020176 - 24 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3284
Abstract
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D.Don) is one of the world’s most domesticated pines and a key economic species in New Zealand. Thus, the development of genomic resources for radiata pine has been a high priority for both research and commercial breeding. Leveraging [...] Read more.
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D.Don) is one of the world’s most domesticated pines and a key economic species in New Zealand. Thus, the development of genomic resources for radiata pine has been a high priority for both research and commercial breeding. Leveraging off a previously developed exome capture panel, we tested the performance of 438,744 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on a screening array (NZPRAD01) and then selected 36,285 SNPs for a final genotyping array (NZPRAD02). These SNPs aligned to 15,372 scaffolds from the Pinus taeda L. v. 1.01e assembly, and 20,039 contigs from the radiata pine transcriptome assembly. The genotyping array was tested on more than 8000 samples, including material from archival progenitors, current breeding trials, nursery material, clonal lines, and material from Australia. Our analyses indicate that the array is performing well, with sample call rates greater than 98% and a sample reproducibility of 99.9%. Genotyping in two linkage mapping families indicated that the SNPs are well distributed across the 12 linkage groups. Using genotypic data from this array, we were also able to differentiate representatives of the five recognized provenances of radiata pine, Año Nuevo, Monterey, Cambria, Cedros and Guadalupe. Furthermore, principal component analysis of genotyped trees revealed clear patterns of population structure, with the primary axis of variation driven by provenance ancestry and the secondary axis reflecting breeding activities. This represents the first commercial use of genomics in a radiata pine breeding program. Full article
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25 pages, 6054 KiB  
Article
Simulating the Effects of Thinning Events on Forest Growth and Water Services Asks for Daily Analysis of Underlying Processes
by Rasoul Yousefpour and Marc Djahangard
Forests 2021, 12(12), 1729; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12121729 - 08 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2764
Abstract
Forest growth function and water cycle are affected by climatic conditions, making climate-sensitive models, e.g., process-based, crucial to the simulation of dynamics of forest and water interactions. A rewarded and widely applied model for forest growth analysis and management, 3PG, is a physiological [...] Read more.
Forest growth function and water cycle are affected by climatic conditions, making climate-sensitive models, e.g., process-based, crucial to the simulation of dynamics of forest and water interactions. A rewarded and widely applied model for forest growth analysis and management, 3PG, is a physiological process-based forest stand model that predicts growth. However, the model runs on a monthly basis and uses a simple soil-water module. Therefore, we downscale the temporal resolution to operate daily, improve the growth modifiers and add a responsive hydrological sub-model to represents the key features of a snow routine, a detailed soil-water model and a separated soil-evaporation calculation. Thereby, we aim to more precisely analyze the effects of thinning events on forest productivity and water services. The novel calibrated 3PG-Hydro model was validated in Norway spruce sites in Southern Germany and confirmed improvements in building forest processes (evapotranspiration) and predicting forest growth (biomass, diameter, volume), as well as water processes and services (water recharge). The model is more sensitive to forest management measures and variability in soil water by (1) individualization of each site’s soil, (2) simulation of percolation and runoff processes, (3) separation of transpiration and evapotranspiration to predict good evapotranspiration even if high thinning is applied, (4) calculation in daily time steps to better simulate variation and especially drought and (5) an improved soil-water modifier. The new 3PG-Hydro model can, in general, better simulate forest growth (stand volume, average diameter), as well as details of soil and water processes after thinning events. The novel developments add complexity to the model, but the additions are crucial and relevant, and the model remains an easy-to-handle forest simulation tool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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25 pages, 15548 KiB  
Article
The Contribution of Trees Outside of Forests to Landscape Carbon and Climate Change Mitigation in West Africa
by David L. Skole, Jay H. Samek, Moussa Dieng and Cheikh Mbow
Forests 2021, 12(12), 1652; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12121652 - 28 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3265
Abstract
While closed canopy forests have been an important focal point for land cover change monitoring and climate change mitigation, less consideration has been given to methods for large scale measurements of trees outside of forests. Trees outside of forests are an important but [...] Read more.
While closed canopy forests have been an important focal point for land cover change monitoring and climate change mitigation, less consideration has been given to methods for large scale measurements of trees outside of forests. Trees outside of forests are an important but often overlooked natural resource throughout sub-Saharan Africa, providing benefits for livelihoods as well as climate change mitigation and adaptation. In this study, the development of an individual tree cover map using very high-resolution remote sensing and a comparison with a new automated machine learning mapping product revealed an important contribution of trees outside of forests to landscape tree cover and carbon stocks in a region where trees outside of forests are important components of livelihood systems. Here, we test and demonstrate the use of allometric scaling from remote sensing crown area to provide estimates of landscape-scale carbon stocks. Prominent biomass and carbon maps from global-scale remote sensing greatly underestimate the “invisible” carbon in these sparse tree-based systems. The measurement of tree cover and carbon in these landscapes has important application in climate change mitigation and adaptation policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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17 pages, 1961 KiB  
Article
Effects of Early, Small-Scale Nitrogen Addition on Germination and Early Growth of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) Seedlings and on the Recruitment of the Root-Associated Fungal Community
by David Castro, Andreas N. Schneider, Mattias Holmlund, Torgny Näsholm, Nathaniel R. Street and Vaughan Hurry
Forests 2021, 12(11), 1589; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12111589 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2578
Abstract
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is one of the most economically important species to the Swedish forest industry, and cost-efficient planting methods are needed to ensure successful reestablishment after harvesting forest stands. While the majority of clear-cuts are replanted with pre-grown seedlings, [...] Read more.
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is one of the most economically important species to the Swedish forest industry, and cost-efficient planting methods are needed to ensure successful reestablishment after harvesting forest stands. While the majority of clear-cuts are replanted with pre-grown seedlings, direct seeding can be a viable option on poorer sites. Organic fertilizer has been shown to improve planted seedling establishment, but the effect on direct seeding is less well known. Therefore, at a scarified (disc trencher harrowed) clear-cut site in northern Sweden, we evaluated the effect of early, small-scale nitrogen addition on establishment and early recruitment of fungi from the disturbed soil community by site-planted Scots pine seeds. Individual seeds were planted using a moisture retaining germination matrix containing 10 mg nitrogen in the form of either arginine phosphate or ammonium nitrate. After one growing season, we collected seedlings and assessed the fungal community of seedling roots and the surrounding soil. Our results demonstrate that early, small-scale N addition increases seedling survival and needle carbon content, that there is rapid recruitment of ectomycorrhizal fungi to the roots and rhizosphere of the young seedlings and that this rapid recruitment was modified but not prevented by N addition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tree Host – Microbial Interactions)
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19 pages, 3655 KiB  
Article
Determination of Riparian Vegetation Biomass from an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
by Alessandro Matese, Andrea Berton, Valentina Chiarello, Riccardo Dainelli, Carla Nati, Laura Pastonchi, Piero Toscano and Salvatore Filippo Di Gennaro
Forests 2021, 12(11), 1566; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12111566 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2494
Abstract
The need to rely on accurate information about the wood biomass available in riparian zones under management, inspired the land reclamation authority of southern Tuscany to develop a research based on the new remote sensing technologies. With this aim, a series of unmanned [...] Read more.
The need to rely on accurate information about the wood biomass available in riparian zones under management, inspired the land reclamation authority of southern Tuscany to develop a research based on the new remote sensing technologies. With this aim, a series of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flight campaigns flanked by ground-data collection were carried out on 5 zones and 15 stream reaches belonging to 3 rivers and 7 creeks, being representative of the whole area under treatment, characterized by a heterogeneous spatial distribution of trees and shrubs of different sizes and ages, whose species’ mix is typical of this climatic belt. A careful preliminary analysis of the zones under investigation, based on the available local orthophotos, followed by a quick pilot inspection of the riverbank segments selected for trials, was crucial for choosing the test sites. The analysis of a dataset composed of both measured and remotely sensed acquired parameters allowed a system of four allometric models to be built for estimating the trees’ biomass. All four developed models showed good results, with the highest correlation found in the fourth model (Model 4, R2 = 0.63), which also presented the lowest RMSE (0.09 Mg). The biomass values calculated with Model 4 were in line with those provided by the land reclamation authority for selective thinning, ranging from 38.9 to 70.9 Mg ha−1. Conversely, Model 2 widely overestimated the actual data, while Model 1 and Model 3 offered intermediate results. The proposed methodology based on these new technologies enabled an accurate estimation of the wood biomass in a riverbank environment, overcoming the limits of a traditional ground monitoring and improving management strategies to benefit the river system and its ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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23 pages, 10998 KiB  
Article
GIS-Based Aesthetic Appraisal of Short-Range Viewsheds of Coastal Dune and Forest Landscapes
by Arvydas Urbis, Ramūnas Povilanskas, Egidijus Jurkus, Julius Taminskas and Domantas Urbis
Forests 2021, 12(11), 1534; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12111534 - 07 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2629
Abstract
This paper demonstrates the possibilities of a Geographical Information System (GIS) for investigating and explicating the spatial variation of the short-range viewshed aesthetic appeal in a World Heritage coastal dune and forest area. The study pursues the following objectives: (1) develop and trial [...] Read more.
This paper demonstrates the possibilities of a Geographical Information System (GIS) for investigating and explicating the spatial variation of the short-range viewshed aesthetic appeal in a World Heritage coastal dune and forest area. The study pursues the following objectives: (1) develop and trial a GIS-based algorithm for computing the Aesthetic Appeal Index for a Short-Range Viewshed (ǣ); (2) deliver an output map showing the spatial variation of the computed ǣ values in the target territory and distribution of the zones with high scenic quality and potential aesthetic ecosystem services (PAES); and (3) assess management alternatives in zones with high PAES and high conservation value. This study combines two key innovative aspects. First, it integrates an objective digital map of habitats with subjective scenic preferences of coastal forest and dune landscapes based on psychophysical and cognitive perceptions of scenic beauty. Second, it applies a GIS-based algorithm to translate subjective scenic preferences to an output map of ǣ. The study’s main conclusion is that the combined aesthetic appraisal of the immediate and foreground viewshed of coastal forests and dunes, by applying a specially created GIS algorithm, allows an assessment of the scenic quality of this landscape reliably in statistical terms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests Tourism and Recreation)
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33 pages, 4052 KiB  
Article
Combining Landscape Fire Simulations with Stand-Level Growth Simulations to Assist Landowners in Building Wildfire-Resilient Landscapes
by Susana Barreiro, Akli Benali, João C. P. Rua, Margarida Tomé, José L. Santos and José M. C. Pereira
Forests 2021, 12(11), 1498; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12111498 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2103
Abstract
The wildfire regime in Portugal has been responsible for millions of hectares of burnt area, and Alvares parish is no exception. In 2017, a severe wildfire burnt 60% of its area. Land abandonment has been increasing since the mid 20th century, and a [...] Read more.
The wildfire regime in Portugal has been responsible for millions of hectares of burnt area, and Alvares parish is no exception. In 2017, a severe wildfire burnt 60% of its area. Land abandonment has been increasing since the mid 20th century, and a large fraction of the forest area belongs to quasi-absent landowners. This has given rise to large, almost unbroken expanses of undermanaged forests that, in combination with rugged topography, originates a landscape prone to large, intense wildfires. Thus, a change in landscape composition and structure capable of reducing flammability and promoting fuel discontinuity is urgently needed. A fire spread simulator and a forest growth simulator were combined to show the impact of improving management at landscape level. It was assumed that the probability of large wildfires may be reduced by setting aside forest area for the implementation of a fuel break network (FBN) and increasing the area under sustainable forest management. Three levels of management intensity were simulated by restricting the area of Quasi-absent non-industrial owners to 34.5%, 20.1%, and 8.5% of the Alvares forest area, in favor of increasing the area of active and semi-active non-industrial owners (current, moderate, and high management scenarios). Different FBN extents, representing four levels of network implementation priority were combined with the management levels, resulting in 12 scenarios. To evaluate the impact of fire, simulations assuming no-fire, no-FBN, and current management intensity were performed, whereas the impact of operation costs was assessed assuming reduced costs for silvicultural operations. Per hectare simulations were then scaled up to the parish level and volume harvested and net present values were used to compare the management improvement scenarios. Results showed that fire has major repercussions on forest income, but these impacts can be minimized. Intensifying forest management and implementing the first priority FBN segments originated substantial improvements in financial outcome from timber production, close to those obtained for the full FBN implementation. Results also evidenced contrasting contributions from industrial and non-industrial owners with the later evidencing unbalanced cash-flows derailing the possibility for interesting forest incomes. The coupling of fire and forest growth simulations can be an interesting approach to assess the impact of different management and policy scenarios and inform policies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engaging Land Owners to Reduce Wildfire Risk at Landscape Level)
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15 pages, 1198 KiB  
Article
Fragmentation and Coordination of REDD+ Finance under the Paris Agreement Regime
by Dong-hwan Kim, Do-hun Kim, Hyun Seok Kim and Raehyun Kim
Forests 2021, 12(11), 1452; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12111452 - 25 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1701
Abstract
Under the Kyoto Protocol regime, various forms of financial support have been committed to helping the implementation of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, as well as fostering conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+) [...] Read more.
Under the Kyoto Protocol regime, various forms of financial support have been committed to helping the implementation of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, as well as fostering conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+) in developing countries. We analyzed the fragmentation of REDD+ finance and suggested methods for its coordination under the Paris Agreement regime. The fragmentation of REDD+ finance was observed, but it was lower than that of general official development assistance (ODA). However, we found that the trend of fragmentation in REDD+ financing is different from that of general ODA, with a few major donors occupying a large portion of the total size of committed REDD+ finance. Thus, it may not be appropriate to consider the fragmentation of REDD+ finance merely as an obstacle that needs to be decreased. Still, the total amount of REDD+ finance should be increased and adjusted for various donor–recipient relationships, in consideration of the REDD+ finance options in the Paris Agreement. Some REDD+ countries have made progress in national REDD+ and accomplished emission reductions. However, REDD+ finance needs to be stratified considering the progress of national REDD+. For such forms of cooperation, an information-sharing and monitoring system that collects information on ongoing REDD+ cooperation, the commitment and expenditure of REDD+ finance, and the support needs of REDD+ countries at a global level should be established. Multilateral organizations need to provide safeguarding functions for developing countries that are isolated from bilateral REDD+ finance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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17 pages, 5586 KiB  
Article
Impact of Gene Flow and Introgression on the Range Wide Genetic Structure of Quercus robur (L.) in Europe
by Bernd Degen, Yulai Yanbaev, Malte Mader, Ruslan Ianbaev, Svetlana Bakhtina, Hilke Schroeder and Celine Blanc-Jolivet
Forests 2021, 12(10), 1425; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12101425 - 19 Oct 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3141
Abstract
As for most other temperate broadleaved tree species, large-scale genetic inventories of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) have focused on the plastidial genome, which showed the impact of post-glacial recolonization and manmade seed transfer. However, how have pollen mediated gene flow and [...] Read more.
As for most other temperate broadleaved tree species, large-scale genetic inventories of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) have focused on the plastidial genome, which showed the impact of post-glacial recolonization and manmade seed transfer. However, how have pollen mediated gene flow and introgression impacted the large-scale genetic structure? To answer these questions, we did a genetic inventory on 1970 pedunculate oak trees from 197 locations in 13 European countries. All samples were screened with a targeted sequencing approach on a set of 381 polymorphic loci (356 nuclear SNPs, 3 nuclear InDels, 17 chloroplast SNPs, and 5 mitochondrial SNPs). In a former analysis with additional 1763 putative Quercus petraea trees screened for the same gene markers we obtained estimates on the species admixture of all pedunculate oak trees. We identified 13 plastidial haplotypes, which showed a strong spatial pattern with a highly significant autocorrelation up to a range of 1250 km. Significant spatial genetic structure up to 1250 km was also observed at the nuclear loci. However, the differentiation at the nuclear gene markers was much lower compared to the organelle gene markers. The matrix of genetic distances among locations was partially correlated between nuclear and organelle genomes. Bayesian clustering analysis revealed the best fit to the data for a sub-division into two gene pools. One gene pool is dominating the west and the other is the most abundant in the east. The western gene pool was significantly influenced by introgression from Quercus petraea in the past. In Germany, we identified a contact zone of pedunculate oaks with different introgression intensity, likely resulting from different historical levels of introgression in glacial refugia or during postglacial recolonization. The main directions of postglacial recolonization were south to north and south to northwest in West and Central Europe, and for the eastern haplotypes also east to west in Central Europe. By contrast, the pollen mediated gene flow and introgression from Q. petraea modified the large-scale structure at the nuclear gene markers with significant west–east direction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
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9 pages, 1263 KiB  
Article
The Contribution of Roots, Mycorrhizal Hyphae, and Soil Free-Living Microbes to Soil Respiration and Its Temperature Sensitivity in a Larch Forest
by Naoki Makita, Roma Fujimoto and Azusa Tamura
Forests 2021, 12(10), 1410; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12101410 - 15 Oct 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2345
Abstract
Soil respiration plays a critical role in driving soil carbon (C) cycling in terrestrial forest ecosystems. However, evidence to demonstrate the response of roots, mycorrhizal hyphae, and soil free-living microbes of soil respiration and their temperature sensitivity (Q10) remains lacking. [...] Read more.
Soil respiration plays a critical role in driving soil carbon (C) cycling in terrestrial forest ecosystems. However, evidence to demonstrate the response of roots, mycorrhizal hyphae, and soil free-living microbes of soil respiration and their temperature sensitivity (Q10) remains lacking. Here, we used a root exclusion method to assess the contribution and response of root respiration (Rroot), mycorrhizal respiration (Rmyc), and (soil organic matter) SOM respiration (Rsom) to soil temperature in a larch forest. During the growing period, the contributions of Rroot, Rmyc, and Rsom to soil respiration were 42%, 6%, and 52%, respectively. The respiration rates of all components increased exponentially with increasing temperature. Based on these constitutive respiration rates with soil temperature, the Q10 values for Rroot, Rmyc, and Rsom were 3.84, 5.18, and 1.86, respectively. The results showed that the response to temperature change was different among roots, mycorrhizal hyphae, and microbes in the soil, while the temperature sensitivity of autotrophic respiration was higher than that of heterotrophic respiration. Importantly, the Rmyc at this site was extremely sensitive to temperature, although its overall emission was small. Mycorrhizal associations were identified as the key drivers of soil respiration and temperature sensitivity. A good understanding of the different soil CO2 efflux components will provide useful information for determining soil C fluxes and predicting soil C dynamics under changing environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soil Carbon and Climate Changes)
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20 pages, 4845 KiB  
Article
Chemical Signals in Tree Rings from Northern Patagonia as Indicators of Calbuco Volcano Eruptions since the 16th Century
by Lizette J. Bertin, Duncan A. Christie, Paul R. Sheppard, Ariel A. Muñoz, Antonio Lara and Claudio Alvarez
Forests 2021, 12(10), 1305; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12101305 - 25 Sep 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5683
Abstract
The Calbuco volcano ranks third in the specific risk classification of volcanoes in Chile and has a detailed eruption record since 1853. During 2015, Calbuco had a sub-Plinian eruption with negative impacts in Chile and Argentina, highlighting the need to determine the long-term [...] Read more.
The Calbuco volcano ranks third in the specific risk classification of volcanoes in Chile and has a detailed eruption record since 1853. During 2015, Calbuco had a sub-Plinian eruption with negative impacts in Chile and Argentina, highlighting the need to determine the long-term history of its activity at a high-resolution time scale to obtain a better understanding of its eruptive frequency. We developed a continuous eruptive record of Calbuco for the 1514–2016 period by dendrochemical analysis of Fitzroya cupressoides tree rings at a biennium resolution using inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry. After comparing the chemical record of 20 elements contained in tree rings with historical eruptions, one group exhibited positive anomalies during (Pb/Sn) and immediately after (Mo/P/Zn/Cu) eruptions, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) ≥ 3, and so were classified as chemical tracers of past eruptions (TPE). The tree-ring width chronology also exhibited significant decreases in tree growth associated with eruptions of VEI ≥ 3. According to these records, we identified 11 new eruptive events of Calbuco, extending its eruptive chronology back to the 16th century and determining a mean eruptive frequency of ~23 years. Our results show the potential to use dendrochemical analysis to infer past volcanic eruptions in Northern Patagonia. This information provides a long-term perspective for assessing eruptive history in Northern Patagonia, with implications for territorial planning. Full article
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18 pages, 7106 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Olive Grove Destruction by Xylella fastidiosa Bacterium on the Land Surface Temperature in Salento Detected Using Satellite Images
by Teodoro Semeraro, Riccardo Buccolieri, Marzia Vergine, Luigi De Bellis, Andrea Luvisi, Rohinton Emmanuel and Norbert Marwan
Forests 2021, 12(9), 1266; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12091266 - 16 Sep 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3203
Abstract
Agricultural activity replaces natural vegetation with cultivated land and it is a major cause of local and global climate change. Highly specialized agricultural production leads to extensive monoculture farming with a low biodiversity that may cause low landscape resilience. This is the case [...] Read more.
Agricultural activity replaces natural vegetation with cultivated land and it is a major cause of local and global climate change. Highly specialized agricultural production leads to extensive monoculture farming with a low biodiversity that may cause low landscape resilience. This is the case on the Salento peninsula, in the Apulia Region of Italy, where the Xylella fastidiosa bacterium has caused the mass destruction of olive trees, many of them in monumental groves. The historical land cover that characterized the landscape is currently in a transition phase and can strongly affect climate conditions. This study aims to analyze how the destruction of olive groves by X. fastidiosa affects local climate change. Land surface temperature (LST) data detected by Landsat 8 and MODIS satellites are used as a proxies for microclimate mitigation ecosystem services linked to the evolution of the land cover. Moreover, recurrence quantification analysis was applied to the study of LST evolution. The results showed that olive groves are the least capable forest type for mitigating LST, but they are more capable than farmland, above all in the summer when the air temperature is the highest. The differences in the average LST from 2014 to 2020 between olive groves and farmland ranges from 2.8 °C to 0.8 °C. Furthermore, the recurrence analysis showed that X. fastidiosa was rapidly changing the LST of the olive groves into values to those of farmland, with a difference in LST reduced to less than a third from the time when the bacterium was identified in Apulia six years ago. The change generated by X. fastidiosa started in 2009 and showed more or less constant behavior after 2010 without substantial variation; therefore, this can serve as the index of a static situation, which can indicate non-recovery or non-transformation of the dying olive groves. Failure to restore the initial environmental conditions can be connected with the slow progress of the uprooting and replacing infected plants, probably due to attempts to save the historic aspect of the landscape by looking for solutions that avoid uprooting the diseased plants. This suggests that social-ecological systems have to be more responsive to phytosanitary epidemics and adapt to ecological processes, which cannot always be easily controlled, to produce more resilient landscapes and avoid unwanted transformations. Full article
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21 pages, 3664 KiB  
Article
Productivity of Eucalyptus pellita in Sumatra: Acacia mangium Legacy, Response to Phosphorus, and Site Variables for Guiding Management
by Eko B. Hardiyanto, Maydra A. Inail and E. K. Sadanandan Nambiar
Forests 2021, 12(9), 1186; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12091186 - 01 Sep 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2299
Abstract
We report on experimental studies conducted in South Sumatra with interrelated objectives to (i) examine the trends in production covering 30 years, including three rotations of Acacia mangium followed by Eucalyptus pellita which replaced A. mangium for managing the widespread threat of diseases; [...] Read more.
We report on experimental studies conducted in South Sumatra with interrelated objectives to (i) examine the trends in production covering 30 years, including three rotations of Acacia mangium followed by Eucalyptus pellita which replaced A. mangium for managing the widespread threat of diseases; (ii) understand the effects of inter-rotation slash and litter management applied to acacia (legacy effects) on E. pellita growth; (iii) assess the long term changes in the top soil layer arising from above; (iv) evaluate, through a network of experiments, across the landscape, the nature and extent of growth responses to additional phosphorus. This data was also used to explore some of the critical site and stand variables which determine the variations in productivity and responses to management. The current growth rates of E. pellita are lower than those achieved in A. mangium. The management-legacy effects by conserving site resources provides a sustainable base for the growth of E. pellita, but for further increase in productivity, additional management actions are necessary. Changes in soil pH, carbon, N and extractable P were relatively small after four rotations. Supply of P at planting gave wood volume gains at harvest, ranging from 16 to 66% across sites. The plinthite layer in the soil profile was related to productivity, with higher growth rates of E. pellita occurring when the plinthite was at deeper layers. There is much scope for increasing productivity per unit area in this landscape, and available knowledge can be synthesized into a package of best practices for application. Management should aim to improve the quality of inter-rotation management to ensure more than 90% survival, and fast growth rates during the first 2 years. We provide a framework for further research and for refining management to produce the much needed additional domestic wood supply for the local industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Production Sustainability of Tropical Forest Plantations)
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16 pages, 1852 KiB  
Article
Effects of Spatial Boreal Forest Harvesting Practices on Efficiency through a Benchmarking Approach in Eastern Canada
by Daniela Mazo and Osvaldo Valeria
Forests 2021, 12(8), 1108; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12081108 - 19 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2161
Abstract
In eastern Canada, harvesting practices and spatial organization of harvested sites are modulated according to ecosystem forest management objectives. We determined how spatial organization affects efficiency by evaluating wood procurement costs. A comparative analysis of efficiency was presented using a non-parametric technique, i.e., [...] Read more.
In eastern Canada, harvesting practices and spatial organization of harvested sites are modulated according to ecosystem forest management objectives. We determined how spatial organization affects efficiency by evaluating wood procurement costs. A comparative analysis of efficiency was presented using a non-parametric technique, i.e., data envelopment analysis (DEA), which allows multiple variable analyses of different factors. A database of 50 harvested sites during the period 2015–2018, located along a north-south latitudinal gradient between 46° to 50°, was constructed with variables describing spatial organization (roads and dispersion of patches) and operational aspects (wood procurement costs). The evaluated financial efficiencies show high values greater than 70%. The causes of inefficiency were dispersion of the patches, distance to the mill, and the number of kilometers of built roads. When efficiency values were arranged by latitudinal location, northern sites exhibited a lower value of overall and scale efficiency due to the high values in the wood harvested, and developed road density of the zone. Full article
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10 pages, 2583 KiB  
Article
Enhancement of Wood Biological Resistance and Fire Retardant Properties after Laccase Assisted Enzymatic Grafting
by Cristian Bolaño, Sabrina Palanti, Luigi Benni and Diego Moldes
Forests 2021, 12(8), 1102; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12081102 - 18 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2049
Abstract
Several treatments of wood, based on laccase assisted grafting, were evaluated in this paper. Firstly, the efficacy of lignosulfonate and kraft lignin from Eucalyptus spp. as a wood preservative was assessed. Both ligno products were anchored to wood surfaces via laccase treatment in [...] Read more.
Several treatments of wood, based on laccase assisted grafting, were evaluated in this paper. Firstly, the efficacy of lignosulfonate and kraft lignin from Eucalyptus spp. as a wood preservative was assessed. Both ligno products were anchored to wood surfaces via laccase treatment in order to avoid leaching. Moreover, some of these wood preservative treatments were completed with the addition of silver nanoparticles. For comparison, a commercial product was also analyzed in terms of its fungal decay resistance during surface application, in accordance to use class 3, CEN EN 335. Secondly, the anchoring of a flame retardant based on tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) was attempted, to limit the dispersion of this toxic substance from treated wood. In both cases, kraft lignin and lignosulfonate showed an improvement in wood durability, even after leaching. However, the addition of silver nanoparticles did not improve the efficacy. On the other hand, the efficacy of TBBPA as a flame retardant was not improved by grafting it with laccase treatment or by adding O2, a co-factor of laccase. Full article
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17 pages, 8049 KiB  
Article
Spatial Patterns of ‘Ōhi‘a Mortality Associated with Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death and Ungulate Presence
by Ryan L. Perroy, Timo Sullivan, David Benitez, R. Flint Hughes, Lisa M. Keith, Eva Brill, Karma Kissinger and Daniel Duda
Forests 2021, 12(8), 1035; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12081035 - 04 Aug 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5439
Abstract
Effective forest management, particularly during forest disturbance events, requires timely and accurate monitoring information at appropriate spatial scales. In Hawai‘i, widespread ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud.) mortality associated with introduced fungal pathogens affects forest stands across the archipelago, further impacting native ecosystems already under [...] Read more.
Effective forest management, particularly during forest disturbance events, requires timely and accurate monitoring information at appropriate spatial scales. In Hawai‘i, widespread ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud.) mortality associated with introduced fungal pathogens affects forest stands across the archipelago, further impacting native ecosystems already under threat from invasive species. Here, we share results from an integrated monitoring program based on high resolution (<5 cm) aerial imagery, field sampling, and confirmatory laboratory testing to detect and monitor ‘ōhi‘a mortality at the individual tree level across four representative sites on Hawai‘i island. We developed a custom imaging system for helicopter operations to map thousands of hectares (ha) per flight, a more useful scale than the ten to hundreds of ha typically covered using small, unoccupied aerial systems. Based on collected imagery, we developed a rating system of canopy condition to identify ‘ōhi‘a trees suspected of infection by the fungal pathogens responsible for rapid ‘ōhi‘a death (ROD); we used this system to quickly generate and share suspect tree candidate locations with partner agencies to rapidly detect new mortality outbreaks and prioritize field sampling efforts. In three of the four sites, 98% of laboratory samples collected from suspect trees assigned a high confidence rating (n = 50) and 89% of those assigned a medium confidence rating (n = 117) returned positive detections for the fungal pathogens responsible for ROD. The fourth site, which has a history of unexplained ‘ōhi‘a mortality, exhibited much lower positive detection rates: only 6% of sampled trees assigned a high confidence rating (n = 16) and 0% of the sampled suspect trees assigned a medium confidence rating (n = 20) were found to be positive for the pathogen. The disparity in positive detection rates across study sites illustrates challenges to definitively determine the cause of ‘ōhi‘a mortality from aerial imagery alone. Spatial patterns of ROD-associated ‘ōhi‘a mortality were strongly affected by ungulate presence or absence as measured by the density of suspected ROD trees in fenced (i.e., ungulate-free) and unfenced (i.e., ungulate present) areas. Suspected ROD tree densities in neighboring areas containing ungulates were two to 69 times greater than those found in ungulate-free zones. In one study site, a fence line breach occurred during the study period, and feral ungulates entered an area that was previously ungulate-free. Following the breach, suspect ROD tree densities in this area rose from 0.02 to 2.78 suspect trees/ha, highlighting the need for ungulate control to protect ‘ōhi‘a stands from Ceratocystis-induced mortality and repeat monitoring to detect forest changes and resource threats. Full article
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18 pages, 16167 KiB  
Article
Assessing Forest Structural and Topographic Effects on Habitat Productivity for the Endangered Apennine Brown Bear
by Angela Anna Rositi, Giovanna Jona Lasinio and Paolo Ciucci
Forests 2021, 12(7), 916; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12070916 - 14 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2354
Abstract
Any forest management potentially affects the availability and quality of resources for forest-dwelling wildlife populations, including endangered species. One such species is the Apennine brown bear, a small and unique population living in the central Apennines of Italy. The conservation of this relict [...] Read more.
Any forest management potentially affects the availability and quality of resources for forest-dwelling wildlife populations, including endangered species. One such species is the Apennine brown bear, a small and unique population living in the central Apennines of Italy. The conservation of this relict bear population is hampered by the lack of knowledge of the fine-scale relationships between productivity of key foods and forest structure, as this prevents the design and implementation of effective forest management plans. To address this issue, we sampled the main structural stand attributes within the bear’s range and used multivariate generalized linear mixed models in a Bayesian framework to relate forest structural attributes to proxies of productivity of key bear foods. We found that hard mast was positively associated with both forest typology and high forest system, but negatively related to both the time elapsed since the last forest utilization and the amount of deadwood. The availability of soft-mast producing species was positively related to past forestry practices but negatively associated with steep slopes historically managed with high tree densities and a low silvicultural disturbance. Our findings also suggest that herb cover was negatively affected by terrain steepness and basal area, while herb productivity was positively affected by northern and southern exposure. Additionally, richness of forest ants was associated with forests characterized by low volume and high density. Our findings confirm that the productivity of natural bear foods is strongly affected by forest structural and topographical characteristics and are relevant as preliminary information for forest management practices to support the long-term conservation of Apennine bears. Full article
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24 pages, 15230 KiB  
Article
From Acid Rain to Low Precipitation: The Role Reversal of Norway Spruce, Silver Fir, and European Beech in a Selection Mountain Forest and Its Implications for Forest Management
by Enno Uhl, Torben Hilmers and Hans Pretzsch
Forests 2021, 12(7), 894; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12070894 - 08 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2579
Abstract
Research Highlights: We make use of long term observation data from a selection forest in Bavaria. Despite the changing environmental conditions, stand level productivity remains constant over time. Maintaining species and structural diversity by forest management can contribute to resilient forest ecosystems. Background [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: We make use of long term observation data from a selection forest in Bavaria. Despite the changing environmental conditions, stand level productivity remains constant over time. Maintaining species and structural diversity by forest management can contribute to resilient forest ecosystems. Background and Objectives: Forests in mountains are similarly affected by environmental changes like those in northern latitudes as species are closer to the edge of their ecological niche. There are recent studies that report species-specific responses to climate change in unmanaged, mono-layered mountain mixed forests. We analyze how environmental changes modify the growth of multi-layered, managed selection forest, which are often targeted for stabilization and risk prevention. We pose the central hypothesis that different species-specific susceptibility to disturbances and structural diversity contribute to ecosystem stability. Materials and Methods: Based on the long-term experiment Freyung 129 in the montane zone of the Bavarian Forest, Germany we analyze long term chronologies of periodic single tree and stand growth of Norway Spruce, silver fir, and European beech in dependence of environmental factors and forest management. Results: First, we show that despite environmental changes in terms of air pollution and drought stress, productivity at stand level persists constantly because of structural diversity and species traits. Second, we show that the species-specific contribution to total stand growth and growth distribution among stem diameter classes may change over time; the species interactions balance total growth. Third, we reveal a role reversal of tree species growth pattern. N. spruce was superior in growth in the first half and was replaced by s. fir in the second half of the survey period. Fourth, we identify the interplay of different stress factors on species-specific growth as the main cause for species-specific asynchronous but growth stabilizing reaction pattern. Finally, we show that density regulation was limited in its impacts to mitigate prevailing stress factors. Conclusions: We discuss the reasons for the observed stability of productivity. We interpret results, where especially the diversity of species and structure typical for selection forests result in stable productivity and wider plateau of the density-productivity relationship, and the suitability of the selection forest concept for risk prevention and stress resilience. We conclude that species composition and stand structure of selection forestry in mixed mountain contribute to climate smart forestry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate-Smart Forestry (CSF) in Mountain Regions)
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20 pages, 4485 KiB  
Article
How to Evaluate Downed Fine Woody Debris Including Logging Residues?
by Nathalie Korboulewsky, Isabelle Bilger and Abdelwahab Bessaad
Forests 2021, 12(7), 881; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12070881 - 06 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2803
Abstract
Volume or biomass estimates of downed woody debris are crucial for numerous applications such as forest carbon stock assessment, biodiversity assessments, and more recently for environmental evaluations of biofuel harvesting practices. Both fixed-area sampling (FAS) and line-intersect sampling (LIS) are used in forest [...] Read more.
Volume or biomass estimates of downed woody debris are crucial for numerous applications such as forest carbon stock assessment, biodiversity assessments, and more recently for environmental evaluations of biofuel harvesting practices. Both fixed-area sampling (FAS) and line-intersect sampling (LIS) are used in forest inventories and ecological studies because they are unbiased and accurate methods. Nevertheless, most studies and inventories take into account only coarse woody debris (CWD, >10 cm in diameter), although fine woody debris (FWD) can account for a large part of the total downed biomass. We compared the LIS and FAS methods for FWD volume or biomass estimates and evaluated the influence of diameter and wood density measurements, plot number and size. We used a Test Zone (a defined surface area where a complete inventory was carried out, in addition to FAS and LIS), a Pilot Stand (a forest stand where both LIS and FAS methods were applied) and results from 10 field inventories in deciduous temperate forest stands with various conditions and amounts of FWD. Both methods, FAS and LIS, provided accurate (in trueness and precision) volume estimates, but LIS proved to be the more efficient. Diameter measurement was the main source of error: using the mean diameter, even by diameter class, led to an error for volume estimates of around 35%. On the contrary, wood density measurements can be simplified without much influence on the accuracy of biomass estimates (use of mean density by diameter class). We show that the length and number of transects greatly influences the estimates, and that it is better to apply more, shorter transects than fewer, longer ones. Finally, we determined the optimal methodology and propose a simplification of some measurements to obtain the best time-precision trade-off for FWD inventories at the stand level. Full article
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12 pages, 2141 KiB  
Article
A Test of the Relationship between Sap Flow and Evapotranspiration, Normalized via Leaf Area, under Non-Limiting Soil Moisture
by Michael A. Forster
Forests 2021, 12(7), 875; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12070875 - 02 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2122
Abstract
Sap flow is the movement of fluid within plants, whereas reference evapotranspiration (ETo) occurs external to plants as the transfer of water vapor from a hypothetical grass crop. Yet, on daily time scales, and when soil moisture is non-limiting, sap [...] Read more.
Sap flow is the movement of fluid within plants, whereas reference evapotranspiration (ETo) occurs external to plants as the transfer of water vapor from a hypothetical grass crop. Yet, on daily time scales, and when soil moisture is non-limiting, sap flow has a positive linear relationship with ETo. Furthermore, the E2.88 model hypothesises that sap flow (Q) is equal to ETo when parameters are normalized by leaf area (AL) via the following relationship: Q/AL = ETo/2.88. The value of 2.88 is the supposed leaf area index of the hypothetical grass in the ETo model. Therefore, the E2.88 model potentially provides a null or expected value of sap flow based on independent ETo parameters and leaf area. A test of the E2.88 model was conducted via three sap flow methods (dual method approach [DMA], heat ratio [HRM], and Tmax method) on the measurement of three woody species: Pyrus communis L. (var. Beurre Bosc Pear), Syzygium floribundum F. Muell. (Weeping Lilly Pilly), and Syzygium paniculatum Gaertn. (Lilly Pilly). A data compilation of the literature expanded the sample size to include additional species. The measured trees and data compilation found a strong, positive correlation between sap flow and ETo normalized by leaf area. However, the interpretation of the results was dependent on the sap flow method. The DMA had an average accuracy of 1.6%, whereas the HRM and Tmax significantly underestimated and overestimated sap flow, respectively. This study suggested that sap flow can be reliably estimated from accurate leaf area and ETo measurements and when other variables, such as soil moisture, are non-limiting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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21 pages, 2212 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Role of Restoration Plantings in Introducing Disease—A Case Study Using Phytophthora
by Flora Donald, Bethan V. Purse and Sarah Green
Forests 2021, 12(6), 764; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12060764 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2827
Abstract
Translocating plants to natural habitats is a long-standing conservation practice but is growing in magnitude to deliver international targets to mitigate climate change and reverse biodiversity loss. Concurrently, outbreaks of novel plant pests and pathogens are multiplying with increased global trade network connectivity [...] Read more.
Translocating plants to natural habitats is a long-standing conservation practice but is growing in magnitude to deliver international targets to mitigate climate change and reverse biodiversity loss. Concurrently, outbreaks of novel plant pests and pathogens are multiplying with increased global trade network connectivity and larger volumes of imported plants, raising concerns that restoration plantings may act as introductory disease pathways. We used UK common juniper, subject since ~1995 to conservation plantings and now experiencing significant mortality from the non-native pathogen Phytophthora austrocedri Gresl. & E. M. Hansen, as an example species to explore the availability of monitoring data that could be used to assess disease risks posed by planting. We compiled spatial records of juniper planting including qualitative data on sources of planting material, propagation settings and organization types that managed planting projects. We found that juniper planting activity expanded every decade since 1990 across the UK and while not all planting resulted in outbreaks, 19% of P. austrocedri detections were found within 2 km of a known planting. We highlight the scale and diversity of organizations raising and planting juniper, as well as the lack of source material traceability, and suggest that cross-sector collaboration and changes in practice are required to reduce the risks of pathogen introduction posed by restoration planting. Full article
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23 pages, 2630 KiB  
Article
Simulating the Effects of Intensifying Silviculture on Desired Species Yields across a Broad Environmental Gradient
by Eric B. Searle, F. Wayne Bell, Guy R. Larocque, Mathieu Fortin, Jennifer Dacosta, Rita Sousa-Silva, Marco Mina and Holly D. Deighton
Forests 2021, 12(6), 755; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12060755 - 08 Jun 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3342
Abstract
In the past two decades, forest management has undergone major paradigm shifts that are challenging the current forest modelling architecture. New silvicultural systems, guidelines for natural disturbance emulation, a desire to enhance structural complexity, major advances in successional theory, and climate change have [...] Read more.
In the past two decades, forest management has undergone major paradigm shifts that are challenging the current forest modelling architecture. New silvicultural systems, guidelines for natural disturbance emulation, a desire to enhance structural complexity, major advances in successional theory, and climate change have all highlighted the limitations of current empirical models in covering this range of conditions. Mechanistic models, which focus on modelling underlying ecological processes rather than specific forest conditions, have the potential to meet these new paradigm shifts in a consistent framework, thereby streamlining the planning process. Here we use the NEBIE (a silvicultural intervention scale that classifies management intensities as natural, extensive, basic, intensive, and elite) plot network, from across Ontario, Canada, to examine the applicability of a mechanistic model, ZELIG-CFS (a version of the ZELIG tree growth model developed by the Canadian Forest Service), to simulate yields and species compositions. As silvicultural intensity increased, overall yield generally increased. Species compositions met the desired outcomes when specific silvicultural treatments were implemented and otherwise generally moved from more shade-intolerant to more shade-tolerant species through time. Our results indicated that a mechanistic model can simulate complex stands across a range of forest types and silvicultural systems while accounting for climate change. Finally, we highlight the need to improve the modelling of regeneration processes in ZELIG-CFS to better represent regeneration dynamics in plantations. While fine-tuning is needed, mechanistic models present an option to incorporate adaptive complexity into modelling forest management outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Simulation Models of the Dynamics of Forest Ecosystems)
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22 pages, 4283 KiB  
Article
Developmental Dynamics of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei (Fabaceae) Drive Forest Structure and Biomass in the Eastern Congo Basin
by Henry B. Glick, Peter M. Umunay, Jean-Remy Makana, Sean C. Thomas, Jonathan D. Reuning-Scherer and Timothy G. Gregoire
Forests 2021, 12(6), 738; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12060738 - 04 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2918
Abstract
Patterns of structural change associated with monodominant tropical forest complexes have remained enigmatic for decades. Here, we extend previous efforts in presenting a longitudinal, local-scale analysis of forest dynamics in central Africa. Using four 10-ha census plots measured across three time periods (959,312 [...] Read more.
Patterns of structural change associated with monodominant tropical forest complexes have remained enigmatic for decades. Here, we extend previous efforts in presenting a longitudinal, local-scale analysis of forest dynamics in central Africa. Using four 10-ha census plots measured across three time periods (959,312 stems ≥1 cm DBH), we analyzed changes in a number of biometrical attributes for four distinct forest types capturing the developmental gradient from mixed species forest to Gilbertiodendron dewevrei-dominated forest. We modeled above-ground biomass (AGB), basal area (BA), and stem density across all species, and diameter at breast height (DBH), recruitment, and mortality for Gilbertiodendron dewevrei. We hypothesized that trends in these attributes are consistent with a slow spread of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei into adjacent mixed species forest. We identified statistically significant increases in AGB and BA across sites and positive, though nonsignificant, increases in AGB and BA for most forest types. DBH and relative recruitment increased significantly for Gilbertiodendron dewevrei stems, while relative mortality did not. When looking from mixed species to transitional to monodominant forest types, we found a statistically significant pattern of developmental aggradation and net expansion of monodominant forest. We do not attribute this to atmospheric forcing but to a combination of (a) landscape-scale recovery or response to widespread disturbance (primarily historical fires), (b) Gilbertiodendron dewevrei’s ectomycorrhizal association, and (c) Gilbertiodendron dewevrei’s exceptional stress tolerance traits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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18 pages, 5218 KiB  
Article
sUAS for 3D Tree Surveying: Comparative Experiments on a Closed-Canopy Earthen Dam
by Cuizhen Wang, Grayson Morgan and Michael E. Hodgson
Forests 2021, 12(6), 659; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12060659 - 22 May 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2284
Abstract
Defined as “personal remote sensing”, small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) have been increasingly utilized for landscape mapping. This study tests a sUAS procedure of 3D tree surveying of a closed-canopy woodland on an earthen dam. Three DJI drones—Mavic Pro, Phantom 4 Pro, and [...] Read more.
Defined as “personal remote sensing”, small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) have been increasingly utilized for landscape mapping. This study tests a sUAS procedure of 3D tree surveying of a closed-canopy woodland on an earthen dam. Three DJI drones—Mavic Pro, Phantom 4 Pro, and M100/RedEdge-M assembly—were used to collect imagery in six missions in 2019–2020. A canopy height model was built from the sUAS-extracted point cloud and LiDAR bare earth surface. Treetops were delineated in a variable-sized local maxima filter, and tree crowns were outlined via inverted watershed segmentation. The outputs include a tree inventory that contains 238 to 284 trees (location, tree height, crown polygon), varying among missions. The comparative analysis revealed that the M100/RedEdge-M at a higher flight altitude achieved the best performance in tree height measurement (RMSE = 1 m). However, despite lower accuracy, the Phantom 4 Pro is recommended as an optimal drone for operational tree surveying because of its low cost and easy deployment. This study reveals that sUAS have good potential for operational deployment to assess tree overgrowth toward dam remediation solutions. With 3D imaging, sUAS remote sensing can be counted as a reliable, consumer-oriented tool for monitoring our ever-changing environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Applications in Forests Inventory and Management)
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12 pages, 2020 KiB  
Article
Genetic Diversity and Population Genetic Structure of Ancient Platycladus orientalis L. (Cupressaceae) in the Middle Reaches of the Yellow River by Chloroplast Microsatellite Markers
by Bei Cui, Ping Deng, Sheng Zhang and Zhong Zhao
Forests 2021, 12(5), 592; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12050592 - 09 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2426
Abstract
Ancient trees are famous for their life spans of hundreds or even thousands of years. These trees are rare, a testament to history and are important for scientific research. Platycladus orientalis, with the longest life span and a beautiful trunk, has become [...] Read more.
Ancient trees are famous for their life spans of hundreds or even thousands of years. These trees are rare, a testament to history and are important for scientific research. Platycladus orientalis, with the longest life span and a beautiful trunk, has become the most widely planted tree species and is believed to be sacred in China. Extensive declines in habitat area and quality pose the greatest threats to the loss of genetic diversity of ancient P. orientalis trees in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Strengthening the protection of P. orientalis genetic resources is of great significance for the long-term development of reasonable conservation and breeding strategies. To better understand the genetic diversity and population structure of P. orientalis, we successfully analyzed four polymorphic chloroplast simple sequence repeat (cpSSR) loci and applied them to diversity and population structure analyses of 202 individuals from 13 populations in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Based on the cpSSR data, 16 alleles were detected across 202 individuals, and a moderate level of genetic diversity was inferred from the genetic diversity parameters (H = 0.367 and AR = 1.964). The mean pairwise genetic differentiation coefficient (Fst) between populations was 0.153, indicating relatively high genetic population differentiations. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that only 8% of the variation occurred among populations. Structure analysis divided the 13 P. orientalis populations into two groups with no significant geographic population structure, which was consistent with the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) and Mantel test results. These results may indicate that transplanting and cultivation by ancient human activities are the main factors responsible for the revealed pattern of genetic differentiation of ancient P. orientalis populations. Our research is of great significance for the future establishment of protection schemes and scientific breeding of P. orientalis. Full article
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16 pages, 6644 KiB  
Article
A STELLA-Based Model to Simultaneously Predict Hydrological Processes, N Uptake and Biomass Production in a Eucalyptus Plantation
by Ying Ouyang, Gary Feng, Heidi Renninger, Theodor D. Leininger, Prem Parajuli and Johnny M. Grace
Forests 2021, 12(5), 515; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12050515 - 21 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2672
Abstract
Eucalyptus is one of the fastest growing hardwoods for bioenergy production. Currently, few modeling tools exist to simultaneously estimate soil hydrological processes, nitrogen (N) uptake, and biomass production in a eucalyptus plantation. In this study, a STELLA (Structural Thinking and Experiential Learning Laboratory [...] Read more.
Eucalyptus is one of the fastest growing hardwoods for bioenergy production. Currently, few modeling tools exist to simultaneously estimate soil hydrological processes, nitrogen (N) uptake, and biomass production in a eucalyptus plantation. In this study, a STELLA (Structural Thinking and Experiential Learning Laboratory with Animation)-based model was developed to meet this need. After the model calibration and validation, a simulation scenario was developed to assess eucalyptus (E. grandis × urophylla) annual net primary production (ANPP), woody biomass production (WBP), water use efficiency (WUE), and N use efficiency (NUE) for a simulation period of 20 years. Simulation results showed that a typical annual variation pattern was predicted for water use, N uptake, and ANPP, increasing from spring to fall and decreasing from fall to the following winter. Overall, the average NUE during the growth stage was 700 kg/kg. To produce 1000 kg eucalyptus biomass, it required 114.84 m3 of water and 0.92 kg of N. This study suggests that the STELLA-based model is a useful tool to estimate ANPP, WBP, WUE, and NUE in a eucalyptus plantation. Full article
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19 pages, 6332 KiB  
Article
Genome-Wide Characterization of Dirigent Proteins in Populus: Gene Expression Variation and Expression Pattern in Response to Marssonina brunnea and Phytohormones
by Lingling Li, Weibo Sun, Peijun Zhou, Hui Wei, Pu Wang, Hongyan Li, Shamsur Rehman, Dawei Li and Qiang Zhuge
Forests 2021, 12(4), 507; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12040507 - 19 Apr 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2751
Abstract
Marssonina brunnea causes a major disease that limits poplar growth. Lignin and lignan play essential roles in protecting plants from various biological stresses. Dirigent (DIR) proteins are thought to control the stereoselective coupling of coniferyl alcohol in the formation of lignan and lignin. [...] Read more.
Marssonina brunnea causes a major disease that limits poplar growth. Lignin and lignan play essential roles in protecting plants from various biological stresses. Dirigent (DIR) proteins are thought to control the stereoselective coupling of coniferyl alcohol in the formation of lignan and lignin. DIR family members have been well studied in several plant species, but no previous detailed genome-wide analysis has been carried out in forest trees, such as poplar. We identified 40 PtDIR genes in Populus trichocarpa and classified them into three subgroups (DIR-a, DIR-b/d, and DIR-e) based on phylogenetic analyses. These genes are distributed on 11 poplar chromosomes, and 80% of PtDIRs (32/40) are intronless. The cis-element analysis inferred that PtDIRs possess many types of biological and abiotic stress-response cis-elements. We also analyzed intra- and inter-specific collinearity, which provided deep insights into the evolutionary characteristics of the poplar DIR genes. Analyses of the protein tertiary structure and critical amino acid residues showed that PtDIR7–10 and PtDIR13–16, which belong to the DIR-a subfamily, might be involved in the regio- and stereo-selectivity of bimolecular phenoxy radical coupling in poplars. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis revealed different expression patterns for the PtDIR genes of P. trichocarpa and the PeDIR genes of ‘Nanlin 895’ in various tissues. Additionally, we analyzed responses of PeDIRs to M. brunnea and different phytohormone treatments (abscisic acid, salicylic acid, methyl jasmonate, and ethylene) in ‘Nanlin 895’. The results showed that at least 18 genes responded strongly to M. brunnea, and these PeDIRs also showed significant responses to phytohormones. These results suggest that DIR genes are involved in the poplar defense response against M. brunnea, and this study will provide fundamental insights for future research on poplar DIR genes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
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14 pages, 1230 KiB  
Article
Rapid Detection of Pine Pathogens Lecanosticta acicola, Dothistroma pini and D. septosporum on Needles by Probe-Based LAMP Assays
by Chiara Aglietti, Colton D. Meinecke, Luisa Ghelardini, Irene Barnes, Ariska van der Nest and Caterina Villari
Forests 2021, 12(4), 479; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12040479 - 14 Apr 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3562
Abstract
Needle blights are serious needle fungal diseases affecting pines both in natural and productive forests. Among needle blight agents, the ascomycetes Lecanosticta acicola, Dothistroma pini and D. septosporum are of particular concern. These pathogens need specific, fast and accurate diagnostics since they [...] Read more.
Needle blights are serious needle fungal diseases affecting pines both in natural and productive forests. Among needle blight agents, the ascomycetes Lecanosticta acicola, Dothistroma pini and D. septosporum are of particular concern. These pathogens need specific, fast and accurate diagnostics since they are regulated species in many countries and may require differential management measures. Due to the similarities in fungal morphology and the symptoms they elicit, these species are hard to distinguish using morphological characteristics. The symptoms can also be confused with those caused by insects or abiotic agents. DNA-based detection is therefore recommended. However, the specific PCR assays that have been produced to date for the differential diagnosis of these pathogens can be applied only in a well-furnished laboratory and the procedure takes a relatively long execution time. Surveillance and forest protection would benefit from a faster diagnostic method, such as a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay, which requires less sophisticated equipment and can also be deployed directly on-site using portable devices. LAMP assays for the rapid and early detection of L. acicola, D. pini and D. septosporum were developed in this work. Species-specific LAMP primers and fluorescent assimilating probes were designed for each assay, targeting the beta tubulin (β-tub2) gene for the two Dothistroma species and the elongation factor (EF-1α) region for L. acicola. Each reaction detected its respective pathogen rapidly and with high specificity and sensitivity in DNA extracts from both pure fungal cultures and directly from infected pine needles. These qualities and the compatibility with inexpensive portable instrumentation position these LAMP assays as an effective method for routine phytosanitary control of plant material in real time, and they could profitably assist the management of L. acicola, D. pini and D. septosporum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Identification and Management of Forest Diseases)
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9 pages, 1819 KiB  
Article
Effect of Temperature and Exposure Time on Cambium Cell Viability In Vitro for Eucalyptus Species
by Yasika Medhavi Subasinghe Achchige, Liubov Volkova and Christopher J. Weston
Forests 2021, 12(4), 445; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12040445 - 06 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2627
Abstract
(1) Research Highlights: Thermal damage to cambium cells of Eucalyptus held in vitro was recorded at sublethal temperatures (40 °C–50 °C) when the duration of exposure extends beyond 2.5 min up to 5 min. (2) Background and Objectives: During a forest fire, heat [...] Read more.
(1) Research Highlights: Thermal damage to cambium cells of Eucalyptus held in vitro was recorded at sublethal temperatures (40 °C–50 °C) when the duration of exposure extends beyond 2.5 min up to 5 min. (2) Background and Objectives: During a forest fire, heat can be transferred through tree bark potentially impacting viability of vascular cambium cells and the perennial growth of the tree. With the increased temperature of the cambium, cells are known to lose viability at temperatures exceeding 60 °C. However, it is possible that extended exposure to temperatures below 60 °C may also impair cell viability. This study aimed to identify the effect of the temperature and exposure time interaction on the cambium cell viability of Eucalyptus, a genus widely distributed in natural forests and commercial plantations globally. (3) Methods: Excised cambium-phloem tissue sections from three Eucalyptus species (Messmate–E. obliqua L’Hér., Narrow-leaf peppermint–E. radiata Sieber ex DC. and Swamp gum–E. ovata Labill.) were exposed in vitro to a series of temperature–time treatments (40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C for 1 min, 2.5 min, and 5 min) and tested for cell viability using a tetrazolium reduction method. (4) Results: Cell viability of cambium cells decreased with increased temperature and exposure times for all three Eucalyptus species. Longer exposure to sublethal temperatures of 40 °C to 50 °C showed statistically similar results to shorter exposure to lethal temperatures (>50 °C). (5) Conclusions: Longer exposure to sublethal temperatures (40 °C–50 °C) caused irreversible thermal damage to cambium cells of Eucalyptus when tested in vitro, further refining our understanding of raised temperature on cell viability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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18 pages, 3012 KiB  
Article
Crown Structure Explains the Discrepancy in Leaf Phenology Metrics Derived from Ground- and UAV-Based Observations in a Japanese Cool Temperate Deciduous Forest
by Noviana Budianti, Hiromi Mizunaga and Atsuhiro Iio
Forests 2021, 12(4), 425; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12040425 - 01 Apr 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2268
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) provide a new platform for monitoring crown-level leaf phenology due to the ability to cover a vast area while offering branch-level image resolution. However, below-crown vegetation, e.g., understory vegetation, subcanopy trees, and the branches of neighboring trees, along with [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) provide a new platform for monitoring crown-level leaf phenology due to the ability to cover a vast area while offering branch-level image resolution. However, below-crown vegetation, e.g., understory vegetation, subcanopy trees, and the branches of neighboring trees, along with the multi-layered structure of the target crown may significantly reduce the accuracy of UAV-based estimates of crown leaf phenology. To test this hypothesis, we compared UAV-derived crown leaf phenology results against those based on ground observations at the individual tree scale for 19 deciduous broad-leaved species (55 individuals in total) characterized by different crown structures. The mean crown-level green chromatic coordinate derived from UAV images poorly explained inter- and intra-species variations in spring leaf phenology, most probably due to the consistently early leaf emergence in the below-crown vegetation. The start dates for leaf expansion and end dates for leaf falling could be estimated with an accuracy of <1-week when the influence of below-crown vegetation was removed from the UAV images through visual interpretation. However, a large discrepancy between the phenological metrics derived from UAV images and ground observations was still found for the end date of leaf expansion (EOE) and start date of leaf falling (SOF). Bayesian modeling revealed that the discrepancy for EOE increased as crown length and volume increased. The crown structure was not found to contribute to the discrepancy in SOF value. Our study provides evidence that crown structure is a pivotal factor to consider when using UAV photography to reliably estimate crown leaf phenology at the individual tree-scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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16 pages, 3603 KiB  
Article
A Novel Tree Biomass Estimation Model Applying the Pipe Model Theory and Adaptable to UAV-Derived Canopy Height Models
by Takashi Machimura, Ayana Fujimoto, Kiichiro Hayashi, Hiroaki Takagi and Satoru Sugita
Forests 2021, 12(2), 258; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020258 - 23 Feb 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2659
Abstract
Aiming to develop a new tree biomass estimation model that is adaptable to airborne observations of forest canopies by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), we applied two theories of plant form; the pipe model theory (PMT) and the statical model of plant form as [...] Read more.
Aiming to develop a new tree biomass estimation model that is adaptable to airborne observations of forest canopies by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), we applied two theories of plant form; the pipe model theory (PMT) and the statical model of plant form as an extension of the PMT for tall trees. Based on these theories, tree biomass was formulated using an individual tree canopy height model derived from a UAV. The advantage of this model is that it does not depend on diameter at breast height which is difficult to observe using remote-sensing techniques. We also proposed a treetop detection method based on the fractal geometry of the crown and stand. Comparing surveys in plantations of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) and Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) in Japan, the root mean square error (RMSE) of the estimated stem volume was 0.26 m3 and was smaller than or comparative to that of models using different methodologies. The significance of this model is that it contains only one empirical parameter to be adjusted which was found to be rather stable among different species and sites, suggesting the wide adaptability of the model. Finally, we demonstrated the potential applicability of the model to light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data which can provide vertical leaf density distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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14 pages, 3187 KiB  
Article
Influence of Agisoft Metashape Parameters on UAS Structure from Motion Individual Tree Detection from Canopy Height Models
by Wade T. Tinkham and Neal C. Swayze
Forests 2021, 12(2), 250; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020250 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7690
Abstract
Applications of unmanned aerial systems for forest monitoring are increasing and drive a need to understand how image processing workflows impact end-user products’ accuracy from tree detection methods. Increasing image overlap and making acquisitions at lower altitudes improve how structure from motion point [...] Read more.
Applications of unmanned aerial systems for forest monitoring are increasing and drive a need to understand how image processing workflows impact end-user products’ accuracy from tree detection methods. Increasing image overlap and making acquisitions at lower altitudes improve how structure from motion point clouds represents forest canopies. However, only limited testing has evaluated how image resolution and point cloud filtering impact the detection of individual tree locations and heights. We evaluate how Agisoft Metashape’s build dense cloud Quality (image resolution) and depth map filter settings influence tree detection from canopy height models in ponderosa pine forests. Finer resolution imagery with minimal filtering provided the best visual representation of vegetation detail for trees of all sizes. These same settings maximized tree detection F-score at >0.72 for overstory (>7 m tall) and >0.60 for understory trees. Additionally, overstory tree height bias and precision improve as image resolution becomes finer. Overstory and understory tree detection in open-canopy conifer systems might be optimized using the finest resolution imagery that computer hardware enables, while applying minimal point cloud filtering. The extended processing time and data storage demands of high-resolution imagery must be balanced against small reductions in tree detection performance when down-scaling image resolution to allow the processing of greater data extents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 2020)
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23 pages, 4439 KiB  
Article
Drought and Pathogen Effects on Survival, Leaf Physiology, Oxidative Damage, and Defense in Two Middle Eastern Oak Species
by Ehsan Ghanbary, Omid Fathizadeh, Iman Pazhouhan, Mehrdad Zarafshar, Masoud Tabari, Shahram Jafarnia, Ghasem Ali Parad and Martin Karl-Friedrich Bader
Forests 2021, 12(2), 247; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020247 - 21 Feb 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3633
Abstract
The charcoal disease agents, Biscogniauxia mediterranea and Obolarina persica are two latent, ascomycetous oak pathogens in the Middle Eastern Zagros forests, where they have devastating effects, particularly during drought. Under greenhouse conditions, we investigated the effects of the two charcoal disease agents individually [...] Read more.
The charcoal disease agents, Biscogniauxia mediterranea and Obolarina persica are two latent, ascomycetous oak pathogens in the Middle Eastern Zagros forests, where they have devastating effects, particularly during drought. Under greenhouse conditions, we investigated the effects of the two charcoal disease agents individually and in combination with drought on survival, growth, foliar gas-exchange, pigment content, oxidative stress and the antioxidant response of Quercus infectoria and Q. libani, two of the dominant tree species in this region. Commonly, the strongest negative effects emerged in the drought–pathogen interaction treatments. Q. infectoria showed less severe lesions, higher survival, more growth, and less leaf loss than Q. libani under combined biotic and abiotic stress. In both oak species, the combination of pathogen infection and drought resulted in more than 50% reduction in foliar gas-exchange parameters with partial recovery over time in Q. infectoria suggesting a superior defense system. Indeed, enhanced foliar anthocyanin, total soluble protein and glutathione concentrations imply an upregulation of the antioxidant defense system in Q. infectoria under stress while none of these parameters showed a significant treatment response in Q. libani. Consequently, Q. infectoria foliage showed no significant increase in superoxide, lower lipoxygenase activity, and less electrolyte leakage compared to the highly elevated levels seen in Q. libani indicating oxidative damage. Our findings indicate greater drought tolerance and pathogen resilience in Q. infectoria compared to Q. libani. Under future climate scenarios, we therefore expect changes in forest community structure driven by a decline in Q. libani and closely associated organisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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26 pages, 2187 KiB  
Article
Diversity of Phytophthora Species Detected in Disturbed and Undisturbed British Soils Using High-Throughput Sequencing Targeting ITS rRNA and COI mtDNA Regions
by Blanca B. Landa, Luis F. Arias-Giraldo, Béatrice Henricot, Miguel Montes-Borrego, Lucas A. Shuttleworth and Ana Pérez-Sierra
Forests 2021, 12(2), 229; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020229 - 17 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2867
Abstract
Disease outbreaks caused by introduced Phytophthora species have been increasing in British forests and woodlands in recent years. A better knowledge of the Phytophthora communities already present in the UK is of great importance when developing management and mitigation strategies for these diseases. [...] Read more.
Disease outbreaks caused by introduced Phytophthora species have been increasing in British forests and woodlands in recent years. A better knowledge of the Phytophthora communities already present in the UK is of great importance when developing management and mitigation strategies for these diseases. To do this, soils were sampled in “disturbed” sites, meaning sites frequently visited by the public, with recent and new plantings or soil disturbances versus more “natural” forest and woodland sites with little disturbance or management. Phytophthora diversity was assessed using high-throughput Illumina sequencing targeting the widely accepted barcoding Internal Transcribed Spacer 1 (ITS1) region of rRNA and comparing it with the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene. Isolation of Phytophthora was run in parallel. Nothophytophthora spp. and Phytophthora spp. were detected in 79 and 41 of the 132 locations of the 14 studied sites when using ITS or COI, respectively. A total of 20 Phytophthora amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were assigned to known Phytophthora species from eight clades (1a, 2, 2b, 3a, 5, 6b, 7a, 8b, 8c, 8d, 10a, and 10b) and 12 ASVs from six clades (1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 6b, 7a, 8b, 8c, and 8d) when using ITS or COI, respectively. Only at two locations were the results in agreement for ITS, COI, and isolation. Additionally, 21 and 17 unknown Phytophthora phylotypes were detected using the ITS and COI, respectively. Several Phytophthora spp. within clades 7 and 8, including very important forest pathogens such as P. austrocedri and P. ramorum, were identified and found more frequently at “disturbed” sites. Additionally, eight ASVs identified as Nothophytophthora spp. were detected representing the first report of species within this new genus in Britain. Only three species not known to be present in Britain (P. castaneae, P. capsici, and P. fallax) were detected with the ITS primers and not with COI. To confirm the presence of these or any potential new Phytophthora species, sites should be re-sampled for confirmation. Additionally, there is a need to confirm if these species are a threat to British trees and try to establish any eradication measures required to mitigate Phytophthora spread in Britain. Full article
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17 pages, 2485 KiB  
Article
In-Depth Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Endangered Peruvian Amazon Rosewood Germplasm Using Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) Technology
by Muhammad Azhar Nadeem, Stalin Juan Vasquez Guizado, Muhammad Qasim Shahid, Muhammad Amjad Nawaz, Ephrem Habyarimana, Sezai Ercişli, Fawad Ali, Tolga Karaköy, Muhammad Aasim, Rüştü Hatipoğlu, Juan Carlos Castro Gómez, Jorge Luis Marapara del Aguila, Pedro Marcelino Adrianzén Julca, Esperanza Torres Canales, Seung Hwan Yang, Gyuhwa Chung and Faheem Shehzad Baloch
Forests 2021, 12(2), 197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020197 - 08 Feb 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3613
Abstract
Research studies on conservative genetics of endangered plants are very important to establish the management plans for the conservation of biodiversity. Rosewood is an evergreen tree of the Amazon region and its essential oil has great acceptance in the medical and cosmetic industry. [...] Read more.
Research studies on conservative genetics of endangered plants are very important to establish the management plans for the conservation of biodiversity. Rosewood is an evergreen tree of the Amazon region and its essential oil has great acceptance in the medical and cosmetic industry. The present study aimed to explore the genetic diversity and population structure of 90 rosewood accessions collected from eight localities of Peruvian Amazon territory through DArTseq markers. A total of 7485 informative markers resulted from genotyping by sequencing (GBS) analysis were used for the molecular characterization of rosewood germplasm. Mean values of various calculated diversity parameters like observed number of alleles (1.962), the effective number of alleles (1.669), unbiased expected heterozygosity (0.411), and percent polymorphism (93.51%) over the entire germplasm showed the existence of a good level of genetic variations. Our results showed that the Mairiricay population was more diverse compared to the rest of the populations. Tamshiyacu-2 and Mairiricay-15 accessions were found genetically distinct accessions. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) reflected maximum variations (75%) are due to differences within populations. The implemented clustering algorithms, i.e., STRUCTURE, neighbor-joining analysis and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) separated the studied germplasm on the basis of their geographical locations. Diversity indices for STRUCTURE-based populations showed that subpopulation A is more diverse population than the rest of the populations, for such reason, individuals belonging to this subpopulation should be used for reintroduction or reinforcement plans of rosewood conservation. We envisage that molecular characterization of Peruvian rosewood germplasm with DArTseq markers will provide a platform for the conservation, management and restoration of endangered rosewood in upcoming years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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15 pages, 19890 KiB  
Article
Xylem and Phloem Formation Dynamics in Quercus ilex L. at a Dry Site in Southern Italy
by Angela Balzano, Katarina Čufar and Veronica De Micco
Forests 2021, 12(2), 188; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12020188 - 07 Feb 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3040
Abstract
Quercus ilex L. dieback has been recently reported at numerous Mediterranean sites. Wood and phloem formation dynamics and tree-ring series of anatomical traits can be used to evaluate growth conditions of trees. We monitored cambial activity in Q. ilex trees growing at a [...] Read more.
Quercus ilex L. dieback has been recently reported at numerous Mediterranean sites. Wood and phloem formation dynamics and tree-ring series of anatomical traits can be used to evaluate growth conditions of trees. We monitored cambial activity in Q. ilex trees growing at a site in southern Italy in order to assess how xylem and phloem production are affected by harsh seasonal climatic variation during a dry year. We followed xylogenesis by counting the number of cambial cells and detecting the occurrence of post-cambial cells throughout the year. As phloem did not show clear growth rings and boundaries between them, we followed the development of phloem fibres—their morphological traits during development and the distance from the cambium served as a reference point to evaluate the phloem production during the year. We detected a multimodal pattern in cambial activity, with wood production in three periods of the year and consequent formation of intra-annual density fluctuations (IADFs). The lowest production of xylem cells was observed in the dry late spring and summer period (likely due to the low water availability), while the highest occurred in autumn (the wettest period). Although we could not differentiate between early and late phloem, the analysis of phloem traits was useful to follow the dynamics of phloem production, which is generally difficult in Mediterranean tree species. We found cambial production of phloem throughout the year, even in the periods without xylem production. The results showed that if tree growth was constrained by environmental limitations, the ratio between xylem to phloem cells decreased and, in the most severely affected trees, more cells were formed preferentially in the phloem compared to xylem. We also briefly report the way in which to solve technical problems with tissue preparation due to extreme hardness and to the peculiar structure of Q. ilex wood and outer bark. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Formation and Environmental Constraints: Multiscale Approach)
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