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Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation...
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Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 April 2018) | Viewed by 126143

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Francisco Javier García-Haro

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Guest Editor
Earth Physics and Thermodynamics Department, Faculty of Physics, Universitat de València, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
Interests: biophysical parameters estimation; canopy reflectance models; spectral mixture analysis; classification; data fusion; validation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Hongliang Fang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
LREIS, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research Chinese Academy of Sciences, 11A Datun Road, Beijing 100101, China
Interests: optical remote sensing; biophysical parameter estimation; vegetation; radiative transfer modeling; calibration/validation; in situ measurements
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Juanma Lopez Sanchez

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Guest Editor
DFISTS – IUII, Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080 Alicante, Spain
Interests: radar polarimetry; interferometry; polarimetric SAR interferometry; agriculture; geophysics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Monitoring of vegetation structure and functioning is critical to modeling terrestrial ecosystems and energy cycles. In particular, leaf area index (LAI) is an important structural property of vegetation used in many land-surface vegetation, climate, and crop production models. Canopy structure (LAI, fCover, plant height and biomass) and biochemical parameters (leaf pigmentation and water content) directly influence the radiative transfer process of sunlight in vegetation, determining the amount of radiation measured by passive sensors in the visible and infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Optical remote sensing (RS) methods build relationships exploiting in situ measurements and/or as outputs of physical canopy radiative transfer models. The increased availability of passive (radar and LiDAR) RS data has fostered their use in many applications for analysis of land surface properties and processes, thanks also to their insensitivity to weather conditions and the capability to exploit rich structural and texture information. Data fusion and multi-sensor integration techniques are pressing topics to fully exploit the information conveyed by both optical and microwave bands.

This Special Issue will review the state of the art in the retrieval of LAI and other vegetation parameters and its usage in a wide variety of applications (e.g., ecology, carbon cycle, agriculture, forestry and food security). Articles covering recent research about the following topics are invited for this Special Issue:

•         Field methods to measure LAI and other vegetation parameters

•         Multiple methods for the retrieval of LAI and other structural parameters (e.g., fCover, plant height, biomass) from satellite and airborne sensors

•         Methods to estimate vegetation status, dynamic (FAPAR, GPP, stage/phenology) and condition (e.g., pigmentation, leaf water content, water stress)

•         Improvement of radiative transfer models, and input data needed for the retrieval of vegetation parameters.

•         LiDAR and microwave Remote Sensing

•         Evaluations of recent missions (e.g., Landsat-8, Sentinel-1 and -2) to improve the spatial and temporal resolutions of retrieved maps

•         LAI and vegetation parameter retrieval from Unmanned Autonomous Vehicle (UAV)

•         Processing of big remote sensing data, e.g., data fusion and multi-sensor data integration techniques

•         Calibration/validation activities for LAI maps and other biophysical products

•         Environmental applications, e.g. detection and mapping of vegetation diseases and stress condition

•         Forest applications, e.g., mapping and monitoring of forest disturbance, degradation and regrowth.

•         Agriculture applications, e.g., crop growth cycle and crop condition, yield predictions, precision agriculture.

•         Assimilation of remote sensing data with vegetation models for forest and agriculture applications

Review articles covering one or more of these topics

 


Guest Editor

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Leaf area index
  • retrieval of vegetation biophysical parameters
  • Optical and microwave remote sensing
  • calibration/validation field campaigns
  • radiative transfer models
  • vegetation monitoring applications

Published Papers (18 papers)

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Research

27 pages, 6960 KiB  
Article
The Potential of High Resolution (5 m) RapidEye Optical Data to Estimate Above Ground Biomass at the National Level over Tanzania
by Lorena Hojas Gascón, Guido Ceccherini, Francisco Javier García Haro, Valerio Avitabile and Hugh Eva
Forests 2019, 10(2), 107; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10020107 - 29 Jan 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5915
Abstract
In this paper, we review the potential of high resolution optical satellite data to reduce the significant investment in resources required for a national field survey for producing estimates of above ground biomass (AGB). We use 5 m resolution RapidEye optical data to [...] Read more.
In this paper, we review the potential of high resolution optical satellite data to reduce the significant investment in resources required for a national field survey for producing estimates of above ground biomass (AGB). We use 5 m resolution RapidEye optical data to support a country wide biomass inventory with the objective of bringing to the attention of the traditional forestry sector the advantages of integrating remote sensing data in the planning and execution of field data acquisition. We analysed the relationship between AGB estimates from a subset of the national survey field plot data collected by the Tanzania Forest Service, with a set of remote sensing biophysical parameters extracted from a sample of fine spatial (5 m) resolution RapidEye images using a regression estimator. We processed RapidEye data using image segmentation for 76 sample sites each of 20 km by 20 km (covering 2.3% of the land area of the country) to image objects of 1 ha. We extracted reflectance and texture information from those objects which overlapped with the field plot data and tested correlations between the two using four different models: Two models from inferential statistics and two models from machine learning. The best results were found using the random forests algorithm (R2 = 0.69). The most important explicative factor extracted from the remote sensing data was the shadow index, measuring the absorption of light in the visible bands. The model was then applied to all image objects on the RapidEye images to obtain AGB for each of the 76 sample sites, which were then interpolated to estimate the AGB stock at the national scale. Using the relative efficiency measure, we assessed the improvement that the introduction of remote sensing data brings to obtain an AGB estimate at the national level, with the same precision as the full survey. The improvement in the precision of the estimate (by reducing its variance) resulted in a relative efficiency of 3.2. This demonstrates that the introduction of remote sensing data at this fine resolution can substantially reduce the number of field plots required, in this case threefold. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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21 pages, 4414 KiB  
Article
Validation and Application of European Beech Phenological Metrics Derived from MODIS Data along an Altitudinal Gradient
by Veronika Lukasová, Tomáš Bucha, Jana Škvareninová and Jaroslav Škvarenina
Forests 2019, 10(1), 60; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10010060 - 14 Jan 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3866
Abstract
Monitoring plant phenology is one of the means of detecting the response of vegetation to changing environmental conditions. One approach for the study of vegetation phenology from local to global scales is to apply satellite-based indices. We investigated the potential of phenological metrics [...] Read more.
Monitoring plant phenology is one of the means of detecting the response of vegetation to changing environmental conditions. One approach for the study of vegetation phenology from local to global scales is to apply satellite-based indices. We investigated the potential of phenological metrics from moderate resolution remotely sensed data to monitor the altitudinal variations in phenological phases of European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Phenological metrics were derived from the NDVI annual trajectories fitted with double sigmoid logistic function. Validation of the satellite-derived phenological metrics was necessary, thus the multiple-year ground observations of phenological phases from twelve beech stands along the altitudinal gradient were employed. In five stands, the validation process was supported with annual (in 2011) phenological observations of the undergrowth and understory vegetation, measurements of the leaf area index (LAI), and with laboratory spectral analyses of forest components reflecting the red and near-infrared radiation. Non-significant differences between the satellite-derived phenological metrics and the in situ observed phenological phases of the beginning of leaf onset (LO_10); end of leaf onset (LO_100); and 80% leaf coloring (LC_80) were detected. Next, the altitude dependent variations of the phenological metrics were investigated in all beech-dominated pixels over the area between latitudes 47°44′ N and 49°37′ N, and longitudes 16°50′ E and 22°34′ E (Slovakia, Central Europe). In all cases, this large-scale regression revealed non-linear relationships. Since spring phenological metrics showed strong dependence on altitude, only a weak relationship was detected between autumn phenological metric and altitude. The effect of altitude was evaluated through differences in local climatic conditions, especially temperature and precipitation. We used normal values from the last 30 years to evaluate the altitude-conditioned differences in the growing season length in 12 study stands. The approach presented in this paper contributes to a more explicit understanding of satellite data-based beech phenology along the altitudinal gradient, and will be useful for determining the optimal distribution range of European beech under changing climate conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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21 pages, 18895 KiB  
Article
The Potential of Multisource Remote Sensing for Mapping the Biomass of a Degraded Amazonian Forest
by Clément Bourgoin, Lilian Blanc, Jean-Stéphane Bailly, Guillaume Cornu, Erika Berenguer, Johan Oszwald, Isabelle Tritsch, François Laurent, Ali F. Hasan, Plinio Sist and Valéry Gond
Forests 2018, 9(6), 303; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9060303 - 29 May 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6427
Abstract
In the agricultural frontiers of Brazil, the distinction between forested and deforested lands traditionally used to map the state of the Amazon does not reflect the reality of the forest situation. A whole gradient exists for these forests, spanning from well conserved to [...] Read more.
In the agricultural frontiers of Brazil, the distinction between forested and deforested lands traditionally used to map the state of the Amazon does not reflect the reality of the forest situation. A whole gradient exists for these forests, spanning from well conserved to severely degraded. For decision makers, there is an urgent need to better characterize the status of the forest resource at the regional scale. Until now, few studies have been carried out on the potential of multisource, freely accessible remote sensing for modelling and mapping degraded forest structural parameters such as aboveground biomass (AGB). The aim of this article is to address that gap and to evaluate the potential of optical (Landsat, MODIS) and radar (ALOS-1 PALSAR, Sentinel-1) remote sensing sources in modelling and mapping forest AGB in the old pioneer front of Paragominas municipality (Para state). We derived a wide range of vegetation and textural indices and combined them with in situ collected AGB data into a random forest regression model to predict AGB at a resolution of 20 m. The model explained 28% of the variance with a root mean square error of 97.1 Mg·ha−1 and captured all spatial variability. We identified Landsat spectral unmixing and mid-infrared indicators to be the most robust indicators with the highest explanatory power. AGB mapping reveals that 87% of forest is degraded, with illegal logging activities, impacted forest edges and other spatial distribution of AGB that are not captured with pantropical datasets. We validated this map with a field-based forest degradation typology built on canopy height and structure observations. We conclude that the modelling framework developed here combined with high-resolution vegetation status indicators can help improve the management of degraded forests at the regional scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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23 pages, 9577 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Forest Aboveground Biomass and Leaf Area Index Based on Digital Aerial Photograph Data in Northeast China
by Dan Li, Xingfa Gu, Yong Pang, Bowei Chen and Luxia Liu
Forests 2018, 9(5), 275; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9050275 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6257
Abstract
Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) and leaf area index (LAI) are two important parameters for evaluating forest growth and health. It is of great significance to estimate AGB and LAI accurately using remote sensing technology. Considering the temporal resolution and data acquisition costs, digital [...] Read more.
Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) and leaf area index (LAI) are two important parameters for evaluating forest growth and health. It is of great significance to estimate AGB and LAI accurately using remote sensing technology. Considering the temporal resolution and data acquisition costs, digital aerial photographs (DAPs) from a digital camera mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle or light, small aircraft have been widely used in forest inventory. In this study, the aerial photograph data was acquired on 5 and 9 June, 2017 by a Hasselblad60 digital camera of the CAF-LiCHy system in a Y-5 aircraft in the Mengjiagang forest farm of Northeast China, and the digital orthophoto mosaic (DOM) and photogrammetric point cloud (PPC) were generated from an aerial overlap photograph. Forest red-green-blue (RGB) vegetation indices and textural factors were extracted from the DOM. Forest vertical structure features and canopy cover were extracted from normalized PPC. Regression analysis was carried out considering only DOM data, only PPC data, and a combination of both. A recursive feature elimination (RFE) method using a random forest was used for variable selection. Four different machine-learning (ML) algorithms (random forest, k-nearest neighbor, Cubist and supporting vector machine) were used to build regression models. Experimental results showed that PPC data alone could estimate AGB, and DOM data alone could estimate LAI with relatively high accuracy. The combination of features from DOM and PPC data was the most effective, in all the experiments considered, for the estimation of AGB and LAI. The results showed that the height and coverage variables of PPC, texture mean value, and the visible differential vegetation index (VDVI) of the DOM are significantly related to the estimated AGB (R2 = 0.73, RMSE = 20 t/ha). The results also showed that the canopy cover of PPC and green red ratio index (GRRI) of DOM are the most strongly related to the estimated LAI, and the height and coverage variables of PPC, the texture mean value and visible atmospherically resistant index (VARI), and the VDVI of DOM followed (R2 = 0.79, RMSE = 0.48). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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11 pages, 3219 KiB  
Article
Development of a GPS Forest Signal Absorption Coefficient Index
by William Wright, Benjamin Wilkinson and Wendell Cropper, Jr.
Forests 2018, 9(5), 226; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9050226 - 25 Apr 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3899
Abstract
In this paper GPS (Global Positioning System)-based methods to measure L-band GPS Signal-to-Noise ratios (SNRs) through different forest canopy conditions are presented. Hemispherical sky-oriented photos (HSOPs) along with GPS receivers are used. Simultaneous GPS observations are collected with one receiver in the open [...] Read more.
In this paper GPS (Global Positioning System)-based methods to measure L-band GPS Signal-to-Noise ratios (SNRs) through different forest canopy conditions are presented. Hemispherical sky-oriented photos (HSOPs) along with GPS receivers are used. Simultaneous GPS observations are collected with one receiver in the open and three inside a forest. Comparing the GPS SNRs observed in the forest to those observed in the open allows for a rapid determination of signal loss. This study includes data from 15 forests and includes two forests with inter-seasonal data. The Signal-to-Noise Ratio Atmospheric Model, Canopy Closure Predictive Model (CCPM), Signal-to-Noise Ratio Forest Index Model (SFIM), and Simplified Signal-to-Noise Ratio Forest Index Model (SSFIM) are presented, along with their corresponding adjusted R2 and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). As predicted by the CCPM, signals are influenced greatly by the angle of the GPS from the horizon and canopy closure. The results support the use of the CCPM for individual forests but suggest that an initial calibration is needed for a location and time of year due to different absorption characteristics. The results of the SFIM and SSFIM provide an understanding of how different forests attenuate signals and insights into the factors that influence signal absorption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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18 pages, 50368 KiB  
Article
Forest Above-Ground Biomass Estimation Using Single-Baseline Polarization Coherence Tomography with P-Band PolInSAR Data
by Haibo Zhang, Changcheng Wang, Jianjun Zhu, Haiqiang Fu, Qinghua Xie and Peng Shen
Forests 2018, 9(4), 163; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9040163 - 23 Mar 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5080
Abstract
Forest above ground biomass (AGB) extraction using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images has been widely used in global carbon cycle research. Classical AGB inversion methods using SAR images are mainly based on backscattering coefficients. The polarization coherence tomography (PCT) technology which can generate [...] Read more.
Forest above ground biomass (AGB) extraction using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images has been widely used in global carbon cycle research. Classical AGB inversion methods using SAR images are mainly based on backscattering coefficients. The polarization coherence tomography (PCT) technology which can generate vertical profiles of forest relative reflectivity, has the potential to improve the accuracy of biomass inversion. The relationship between vertical profiles and forest AGB is modeled by some parameters defined based on geometric characteristics of the relative reflectivity distribution curve. But these parameters are defined without physical characteristics. Among these parameters, tomographic height (TomoH) is considered as the most important one. However, TomoH only corresponds to the highest volume relative reflectivity, which is lower than the actual forest height, affecting the accuracy of forest height and AGB inversion. In this paper, we introduce a new parameter, the canopy height (Hac), for AGB inversion by analyzing the vertical backscatter power loss. Then, we construct an inversion model based on the combination of the new parameter (Hac) and other parameters from the tomographic profile. The P-band polarimetric SAR datasets of the European Space Agency (ESA) BioSAR 2008 campaign acquired over Krycklan Catchment are selected for the verification experiment at two different flight directions. The results show that Hac performs better in estimating forest height and AGB than TomoH does. The inversion root mean square error (RMSE) of the proposed method is 18.325 t ha−1, and the result of using TomoH is 21.126 t ha−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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16 pages, 6652 KiB  
Article
Effects of Tree Trunks on Estimation of Clumping Index and LAI from HemiView and Terrestrial LiDAR
by Yunfei Bao, Wenjian Ni, Dianzhong Wang, Chunyu Yue, Hongyan He and Hans Verbeeck
Forests 2018, 9(3), 144; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9030144 - 16 Mar 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4246
Abstract
Estimating clumping indices is important for determining the leaf area index (LAI) of forest canopies. The spatial distribution of the clumping index is vital for LAI estimation. However, the neglect of woody tissue can result in biased clumping index estimates when indirectly deriving [...] Read more.
Estimating clumping indices is important for determining the leaf area index (LAI) of forest canopies. The spatial distribution of the clumping index is vital for LAI estimation. However, the neglect of woody tissue can result in biased clumping index estimates when indirectly deriving them from the gap probability and LAI observations. It is difficult to effectively and automatically extract woody tissue from digital hemispherical photos. In this study, a method for the automatic detection of trunks from Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) data was used. Between-crown and within-crown gaps from TLS data were separated to calculate the clumping index. Subsequently, we analyzed the gap probability, clumping index, and LAI estimates based on TLS and HemiView data in consideration of woody tissue (trunks). Although the clumping index estimated from TLS had better agreement (R2 = 0.761) than that from HemiView, the change of angular distribution of the clumping index affected by the trunks from TLS data was more obvious than with the HemiView data. Finally, the exclusion of the trunks led to a reduction in the average LAI by ~19.6% and 8.9%, respectively, for the two methods. These results also showed that the detection of woody tissue was more helpful for the estimation of clumping index distribution. Moreover, the angular distribution of the clumping index is more important for the LAI estimate than the average clumping index value. We concluded that woody tissue should be detected for the clumping index estimate from TLS data, and 3D information could be used for estimating the angular distribution of the clumping index, which is essential for highly accurate LAI field measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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15 pages, 2942 KiB  
Article
Estimation and Extrapolation of Tree Parameters Using Spectral Correlation between UAV and Pléiades Data
by Azadeh Abdollahnejad, Dimitrios Panagiotidis and Peter Surový
Forests 2018, 9(2), 85; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9020085 - 11 Feb 2018
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5803
Abstract
The latest technological advances in space-borne imagery have significantly enhanced the acquisition of high-quality data. With the availability of very high-resolution satellites, such as Pléiades, it is now possible to estimate tree parameters at the individual level with high fidelity. Despite innovative advantages [...] Read more.
The latest technological advances in space-borne imagery have significantly enhanced the acquisition of high-quality data. With the availability of very high-resolution satellites, such as Pléiades, it is now possible to estimate tree parameters at the individual level with high fidelity. Despite innovative advantages on high-precision satellites, data acquisition is not yet available to the public at a reasonable cost. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have the practical advantage of data acquisition at a higher spatial resolution than that of satellites. This study is divided into two main parts: (1) we describe the estimation of basic tree attributes, such as tree height, crown diameter, diameter at breast height (DBH), and stem volume derived from UAV data based on structure from motion (SfM) algorithms; and (2) we consider the extrapolation of the UAV data to a larger area, using correlation between satellite and UAV observations as an economically viable approach. Results have shown that UAVs can be used to predict tree characteristics with high accuracy (i.e., crown projection, stem volume, cross-sectional area (CSA), and height). We observed a significant relation between extracted data from UAV and ground data with R2 = 0.71 for stem volume, R2 = 0.87 for height, and R2 = 0.60 for CSA. In addition, our results showed a high linear relation between spectral data from the UAV and the satellite (R2 = 0.94). Overall, the accuracy of the results between UAV and Pléiades was reasonable and showed that the used methods are feasible for extrapolation of extracted data from UAV to larger areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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21 pages, 13347 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Global LAI/FPAR Products from VIIRS and MODIS Sensors for Spatio-Temporal Consistency and Uncertainty from 2012–2016
by Baodong Xu, Taejin Park, Kai Yan, Chi Chen, Yelu Zeng, Wanjuan Song, Gaofei Yin, Jing Li, Qinhuo Liu, Yuri Knyazikhin and Ranga B. Myneni
Forests 2018, 9(2), 73; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9020073 - 01 Feb 2018
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 7322
Abstract
The operational Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation absorbed by vegetation (FPAR) algorithm has been successfully implemented for Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) observations by optimizing a small set of configurable parameters in [...] Read more.
The operational Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation absorbed by vegetation (FPAR) algorithm has been successfully implemented for Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) observations by optimizing a small set of configurable parameters in Look-Up-Tables (LUTs). Our preliminary evaluation showed reasonable agreement between VIIRS and MODIS LAI/FPAR retrievals. However, there is a need for a more comprehensive investigation to assure continuity of multi-sensor global LAI/FPAR time series, as the preliminary evaluation was spatiotemporally limited. In this study, we use a multi-year (2012–2016) global LAI/FPAR product generated from VIIRS and MODIS to evaluate for spatiotemporal consistency. We also quantify uncertainty of the product by utilizing available ground measurements. For both consistency and uncertainty evaluation, we account for variations in biome type and temporal resolution. Our results indicate that the LAI/FPAR retrievals from VIIRS and MODIS are consistent at different spatial (i.e., global and site) and temporal (i.e., 8-day, seasonal and annual) scales. The estimate of mean discrepancy (−0.006 ± 0.013 for LAI and −0.002 ± 0.002 for FPAR) meets the stability requirement for long-term LAI/FPAR Earth System Data Records (ESDRs) from multi-sensors as suggested by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS). It is noteworthy that the rate of retrievals from the radiative transfer-based main algorithm is also comparable between two sensors. However, a relatively larger discrepancy over tropical forests was observed due to reflectance saturation and an unexpected interannual variation of main algorithm success was noticed due to instability in input surface reflectances. The uncertainties/relative uncertainties of VIIRS and MODIS LAI (FPAR) products assessed through comparisons to ground measurements are estimated to be 0.60/42.2% (0.10/24.4%) and 0.55/39.3% (0.11/26%), respectively. Note that the validated LAI were only distributed in low domains (~2.5), resulting in large relative uncertainty. Therefore, more ground measurements are needed to achieve a more comprehensive evaluation result of product uncertainty. The results presented here generally imbue confidence in the consistency between VIIRS and MODIS LAI/FPAR products and the feasibility of generating long-term multi-sensor LAI/FPAR ESDRs time series. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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20 pages, 4466 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of Simulated and Field-Derived Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Canopy Height Values from Four Forest Complexes in the Southeastern USA
by John S. Iiames, Ellen Cooter, Donna Schwede and Jimmy Williams
Forests 2018, 9(1), 26; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9010026 - 12 Jan 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4839
Abstract
Vegetative leaf area is a critical input to models that simulate human and ecosystem exposure to atmospheric pollutants. Leaf area index (LAI) can be measured in the field or numerically simulated, but all contain some inherent uncertainty that is passed to the exposure [...] Read more.
Vegetative leaf area is a critical input to models that simulate human and ecosystem exposure to atmospheric pollutants. Leaf area index (LAI) can be measured in the field or numerically simulated, but all contain some inherent uncertainty that is passed to the exposure assessments that use them. LAI estimates for minimally managed or natural forest stands can be particularly difficult to develop as a result of interspecies competition, age and spatial distribution. Satellite-based LAI estimates hold promise for retrospective analyses, but we must continue to rely on numerical models for alternative management analysis. Our objective for this study is to calculate and validate LAI estimates generated from the USDA Environmental Policy Impact Climate (EPIC) model (a widely used, field-scale, biogeochemical model) on four forest complexes spanning three physiographic provinces in Virginia and North Carolina. Measurements of forest composition (species and number), LAI, tree diameter, basal area, and canopy height were recorded at each site during the 2002 field season. Calibrated EPIC results show stand-level temporally resolved LAI estimates with R2 values ranging from 0.69 to 0.96, and stand maximum height estimates within 20% of observation. This relatively high level of performance is attributable to EPIC’s approach to the characterization of forest stand biogeochemical budgets, stand history, interspecies competition and species-specific response to local weather conditions. We close by illustrating the extension of this site-level approach to scales that could support regional air quality model simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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5424 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Vegetation Cover Using Digital Photography in a Regional Survey of Central Mexico
by Víctor Salas-Aguilar, Cristóbal Sánchez-Sánchez, Fabiola Rojas-García, Fernando Paz-Pellat, J. René Valdez-Lazalde and Carmelo Pinedo-Alvarez
Forests 2017, 8(10), 392; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8100392 - 15 Oct 2017
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5256
Abstract
The methods for measuring vegetation cover in Mexican forest surveys are subjective and imprecise. The objectives of this research were to compare the sampling designs used to measure the vegetation cover and estimate the over and understory cover in different land uses, using [...] Read more.
The methods for measuring vegetation cover in Mexican forest surveys are subjective and imprecise. The objectives of this research were to compare the sampling designs used to measure the vegetation cover and estimate the over and understory cover in different land uses, using digital photography. The study was carried out in 754 circular sampling sites in central Mexico. Four spatial sampling designs were evaluated in three spatial distribution patterns of the trees. The sampling designs with photographic captures in diagonal form had lower values of mean absolute error (MAE < 0.12) and less variation in random and grouped patterns. The Carbon and Biomass Sampling Plot (CBSP) design was chosen due to its smaller error in the different spatial tree patterns. The image processing was performed using threshold segmentation techniques and was automated through an application developed in the Python language. The two proposed methods to estimate vegetation cover through digital photographs were robust and replicable in all sampling plots with different land uses and different illumination conditions. The automation of the process avoided human estimation errors and ensured the reproducibility of the results. This method is working for regional surveys and could be used in national surveys due to its functionality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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7364 KiB  
Article
Assessing Forest Cover Dynamics and Forest Perception in the Atlantic Forest of Paraguay, Combining Remote Sensing and Household Level Data
by Emmanuel Da Ponte, Benjamin Mack, Christian Wohlfart, Oscar Rodas, Martina Fleckenstein, Natascha Oppelt, Stefan Dech and Claudia Kuenzer
Forests 2017, 8(10), 389; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8100389 - 11 Oct 2017
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 10906
Abstract
The Upper Parana Atlantic Forest (BAAPA) in Paraguay is one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. The rapid growth of deforestation has resulted in the loss of 91% of its original cover. Numerous efforts have been made to halt deforestation [...] Read more.
The Upper Parana Atlantic Forest (BAAPA) in Paraguay is one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. The rapid growth of deforestation has resulted in the loss of 91% of its original cover. Numerous efforts have been made to halt deforestation activities, however farmers’ perception towards the forest and its benefits has not been considered either in studies conducted so far or by policy makers. This research provides the first multi-temporal analysis of the dynamics of the forest within the BAAPA region on the one hand, and assesses the way farmers perceive the forest and how this influences forest conservation at the farm level on the other. Remote sensing data acquired from Landsat images from 1999 to 2016 were used to measure the extent of the forest cover and deforestation rates over 17 years. Farmers’ influence on the dynamics of the forest was evaluated by combining earth observation data and household survey results conducted in the BAAPA region in 2016. Outcomes obtained in this study demonstrate a total loss in forest cover of 7500 km2. Deforestation rates in protected areas were determined by management regimes. The combination of household level and remote sensing data demonstrated that forest dynamics at the farm level is influenced by farm type, the level of dependency/use of forest benefits and the level of education of forest owners. An understanding of the social value awarded to the forest is a relevant contribution towards preserving natural resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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3401 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Response of Photosynthetic Activity of Mediterranean Evergreen Oaks to Enhanced Drought Stress and Recovery by Using PRI and R690/R630
by Chao Zhang, Catherine Preece, Iolanda Filella, Gerard Farré-Armengol and Josep Peñuelas
Forests 2017, 8(10), 386; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8100386 - 10 Oct 2017
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5879
Abstract
The photochemical reflectance index (PRI) and red-edge region of the spectrum are known to be sensitive to plant physiological processes, and through measurement of these optical signals it is possible to use non-invasive remote sensing to monitor the plant photosynthetic status in response [...] Read more.
The photochemical reflectance index (PRI) and red-edge region of the spectrum are known to be sensitive to plant physiological processes, and through measurement of these optical signals it is possible to use non-invasive remote sensing to monitor the plant photosynthetic status in response to environmental stresses such as drought. We conducted a greenhouse experiment using Quercus ilex, a Mediterranean evergreen oak species, to investigate the links between leaf-level PRI and the red-edge based reflectance ratio (R690/R630) with CO2 assimilation rates (A), and photochemical efficiency (FV/FM and Yield) in response to a gradient of mild to extreme drought treatments (nine progressively enhanced drought levels) and corresponding recovery. PRI and R690/R630 both decreased under enhanced drought stress, and had significant correlations with A, FV/FM and Yield. The differential values between recovery and drought treatments of PRI (ΔPRIrecovery) and R690/R630 (ΔR690/R630recovery) increased with the enhanced drought levels, and significantly correlated with the increases of ΔArecovery, ΔFV/FMrecovery and ΔYieldrecovery. We concluded that both PRI and R690/R630 were not only sensitive to enhanced drought stresses, but also highly sensitive to photosynthetic recovery. Our study makes important progress for remotely monitoring the effect of drought and recovery on photosynthetic regulation using the simple physiological indices of PRI and R690/R630. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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1538 KiB  
Article
Forest Structure Estimation from a UAV-Based Photogrammetric Point Cloud in Managed Temperate Coniferous Forests
by Tetsuji Ota, Miyuki Ogawa, Nobuya Mizoue, Keiko Fukumoto and Shigejiro Yoshida
Forests 2017, 8(9), 343; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8090343 - 13 Sep 2017
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6613
Abstract
Here, we investigated the capabilities of a lightweight unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetric point cloud for estimating forest biophysical properties in managed temperate coniferous forests in Japan, and the importance of spectral information for the estimation. We estimated four biophysical properties: stand volume [...] Read more.
Here, we investigated the capabilities of a lightweight unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetric point cloud for estimating forest biophysical properties in managed temperate coniferous forests in Japan, and the importance of spectral information for the estimation. We estimated four biophysical properties: stand volume (V), Lorey’s mean height (HL), mean height (HA), and max height (HM). We developed three independent variable sets, which included a height variable, a spectral variable, and a combined height and spectral variable. The addition of a dominant tree type to the above data sets was also tested. The model including a height variable and dominant tree type was the best for all biophysical property estimations. The root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) for the best model for V, HL, HA, and HM, were 118.30, 1.13, 1.24, and 1.24, respectively. The model including a height variable alone yielded the second highest accuracy. The respective RMSEs were 131.74, 1.21, 1.31, and 1.32. The model including a spectral variable alone yielded much lower estimation accuracy than that including a height variable. Thus, a lightweight UAV photogrammetric point cloud could accurately estimate forest biophysical properties, and a spectral variable was not necessarily required for the estimation. The dominant tree type improved estimation accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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7072 KiB  
Article
Individual Tree Detection from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Derived Canopy Height Model in an Open Canopy Mixed Conifer Forest
by Midhun Mohan, Carlos Alberto Silva, Carine Klauberg, Prahlad Jat, Glenn Catts, Adrián Cardil, Andrew Thomas Hudak and Mahendra Dia
Forests 2017, 8(9), 340; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8090340 - 11 Sep 2017
Cited by 296 | Viewed by 23547
Abstract
Advances in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology and data processing capabilities have made it feasible to obtain high-resolution imagery and three dimensional (3D) data which can be used for forest monitoring and assessing tree attributes. This study evaluates the applicability of low consumer [...] Read more.
Advances in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology and data processing capabilities have made it feasible to obtain high-resolution imagery and three dimensional (3D) data which can be used for forest monitoring and assessing tree attributes. This study evaluates the applicability of low consumer grade cameras attached to UAVs and structure-from-motion (SfM) algorithm for automatic individual tree detection (ITD) using a local-maxima based algorithm on UAV-derived Canopy Height Models (CHMs). This study was conducted in a private forest at Cache Creek located east of Jackson city, Wyoming. Based on the UAV-imagery, we allocated 30 field plots of 20 m × 20 m. For each plot, the number of trees was counted manually using the UAV-derived orthomosaic for reference. A total of 367 reference trees were counted as part of this study and the algorithm detected 312 trees resulting in an accuracy higher than 85% (F-score of 0.86). Overall, the algorithm missed 55 trees (omission errors), and falsely detected 46 trees (commission errors) resulting in a total count of 358 trees. We further determined the impact of fixed tree window sizes (FWS) and fixed smoothing window sizes (SWS) on the ITD accuracy, and detected an inverse relationship between tree density and FWS. From our results, it can be concluded that ITD can be performed with an acceptable accuracy (F > 0.80) from UAV-derived CHMs in an open canopy forest, and has the potential to supplement future research directed towards estimation of above ground biomass and stem volume from UAV-imagery. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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2467 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Forest Biomass Patterns across Northeast China Based on Allometric Scale Relationship
by Xiliang Ni, Chunxiang Cao, Yuke Zhou, Lin Ding, Sungho Choi, Yuli Shi, Taejin Park, Xiao Fu, Hong Hu and Xuejun Wang
Forests 2017, 8(8), 288; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8080288 - 08 Aug 2017
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5674
Abstract
This study develops a modeling framework for utilizing the large footprint LiDAR waveform data from the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) onboard NASA’s Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (MODIS) imagery, meteorological data, and forest measurements for monitoring [...] Read more.
This study develops a modeling framework for utilizing the large footprint LiDAR waveform data from the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) onboard NASA’s Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat), Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (MODIS) imagery, meteorological data, and forest measurements for monitoring stocks of total biomass (including aboveground biomass and root biomass). The forest tree height models were separately used according to the artificial neural network (ANN) and the allometric scaling and resource limitation (ASRL) tree height models which can both combine the climate data and satellite data to predict forest tree heights. Based on the allometric approach, the forest aboveground biomass model was developed from the field measured aboveground biomass data and the tree heights derived from two tree height models. Then, the root biomass should scale with the aboveground biomass. To investigate whether this approach is efficient for estimating forest total biomass, we used Northeast China as the object of study. Our results generally proved that the method proposed in this study could be meaningful for forest total biomass estimation (R2 = 0.699, RMSE = 55.86). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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1712 KiB  
Article
Automatic Mapping of Forest Stands Based on Three-Dimensional Point Clouds Derived from Terrestrial Laser-Scanning
by Tim Ritter, Marcel Schwarz, Andreas Tockner, Friedrich Leisch and Arne Nothdurft
Forests 2017, 8(8), 265; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8080265 - 25 Jul 2017
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 6196
Abstract
Mapping of exact tree positions can be regarded as a crucial task of field work associated with forest monitoring, especially on intensive research plots. We propose a two-stage density clustering approach for the automatic mapping of tree positions, and an algorithm for automatic [...] Read more.
Mapping of exact tree positions can be regarded as a crucial task of field work associated with forest monitoring, especially on intensive research plots. We propose a two-stage density clustering approach for the automatic mapping of tree positions, and an algorithm for automatic tree diameter estimates based on terrestrial laser-scanning (TLS) point cloud data sampled under limited sighting conditions. We show that our novel approach is able to detect tree positions in a mixed and vertically structured stand with an overall accuracy of 91.6%, and with omission- and commission error of only 5.7% and 2.7% respectively. Moreover, we were able to reproduce the stand’s diameter in breast height (DBH) distribution, and to estimate single trees DBH with a mean average deviation of ±2.90 cm compared with tape measurements as reference. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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1976 KiB  
Article
Potential and Limits of Retrieving Conifer Leaf Area Index Using Smartphone-Based Method
by Yonghua Qu, Jian Wang, Jinling Song and Jindi Wang
Forests 2017, 8(6), 217; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f8060217 - 19 Jun 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4515
Abstract
Forest leaf area index (LAI) is a key characteristic affecting a field canopy microclimate. In addition to traditional professional measuring instruments, smartphone-based methods have been used to measure forest LAI. However, when smartphone methods were used to measure conifer forest LAI, very different [...] Read more.
Forest leaf area index (LAI) is a key characteristic affecting a field canopy microclimate. In addition to traditional professional measuring instruments, smartphone-based methods have been used to measure forest LAI. However, when smartphone methods were used to measure conifer forest LAI, very different performances were obtained depending on whether the smartphone was held at the zenith angle or at a 57.5° angle. To further validate the potential of smartphone sensors for measuring conifer LAI and to find the limits of this method, this paper reports the results of a comparison of two smartphone methods with an LAI-2000 instrument. It is shown that the method with the smartphone oriented vertically upwards always produced better consistency in magnitude with LAI-2000. The bias of the LAI between the smartphone method and the LAI-2000 instrument was explained with regards to four aspects that can affect LAI: gap fraction; leaf projection ratio; sensor field of view (FOV); and viewing zenith angle (VZA). It was concluded that large FOV and large VZA cause the 57.5° method to overestimate the gap fraction and hence underestimate conifer LAI. For the vertically upward method, the bias caused by the overestimated gap fraction is compensated for by an underestimated leaf projection ratio. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Other Vegetation Parameters)
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