Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2019) | Viewed by 72202

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Special Issue Editors

Computational & Applied Vegetation Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: terrestrial and UAV based LiDAR; measurement and modelling of full 3D vegetation structure and how this is related to airborne or spaceborne remote sensing signals; radiative transfer modelling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), 00153 Rome, Italy
Interests: remote sensing and earth observation; REDD+; climate change implications on forest carbon dynamics; forest degradation and monitoring
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
School of Forest Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 7, P.O.Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland
Interests: remote sensing; laser scanning; precision forestry; forest structure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Earth Observation, Climate and Optical Group, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington TW11 0LW, UK
Interests: assessing the quality of information about forests derived from in situ measurement devices and Earth Observation satellites; improving global satellite-derived biophysical product validation strategies; and contributing to good practice guidance for the evaluation of ECV data records
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Advances in close-range and remote sensing technologies drive innovations in forest resource assessments and monitoring at varying scales. Data acquired with airborne and spaceborne platforms provide us with higher spatial resolution, more frequent coverage and an increased spectral information. Recent developments in ground-based sensors have advanced 3D measurements, low-cost permanent systems and community-based monitoring of forests. The UNFCCC REDD+ mechanism has moved the remote sensing community in advancing and developing forest geospatial products which can be used by countries for the international reporting and national forest monitoring. However, there still is an urgent need to better understand the options and limitations of remote and close-range sensing techniques in the field of degradation and forest change.

Therefore, we invite scientists working on remote sensing technologies, close-range sensing and field data to contribute to this Special Issue. Topics of interest include (a) novel remote sensing applications that can advance the needs on forest resource information and REDD+ MRV; (b) case studies of applying remote sensing data for REDD+ MRV; (c) timeseries’ algorithms and methodologies for forest resource assessment at the different spatial scales varying from tree to national level; (d) novel close-range sensing applications that can support sustainable forestry and REDD+ MRV; We would particularly welcome submissions on data fusion.

Dr. Kim Calders
Dr. Inge Jonckheere
Assoc. Prof. Mikko Vastaranta
Dr. Joanne Nightingale
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • Forestry
  • LULUCF
  • REDD+
  • MRV
  • Timeseries
  • Remote sensing
  • Close-range sensing

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 653 KiB  
Editorial
Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+
by Kim Calders, Inge Jonckheere, Joanne Nightingale and Mikko Vastaranta
Forests 2020, 11(2), 188; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f11020188 - 07 Feb 2020
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3788
Abstract
Advances in close-range and remote sensing technologies drive innovations in forest resource assessments and monitoring at varying scales. Data acquired with airborne and spaceborne platforms provide us with higher spatial resolution, more frequent coverage and increased spectral information. Recent developments in ground-based sensors [...] Read more.
Advances in close-range and remote sensing technologies drive innovations in forest resource assessments and monitoring at varying scales. Data acquired with airborne and spaceborne platforms provide us with higher spatial resolution, more frequent coverage and increased spectral information. Recent developments in ground-based sensors have advanced three dimensional (3D) measurements, low-cost permanent systems and community-based monitoring of forests. The REDD+ mechanism has moved the remote sensing community in advancing and developing forest geospatial products which can be used by countries for the international reporting and national forest monitoring. However, there still is an urgent need to better understand the options and limitations of remote and close-range sensing techniques in the field of degradation and forest change assessment. This Special Issue contains 12 studies that provided insight into new advances in the field of remote sensing for forest management and REDD+. This includes developments into algorithm development using satellite data; synthetic aperture radar (SAR); airborne and terrestrial LiDAR; as well as forest reference emissions level (FREL) frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

24 pages, 2028 KiB  
Article
Determining a Carbon Reference Level for a High-Forest-Low-Deforestation Country
by Johannes Pirker, Aline Mosnier, Tatiana Nana, Matthias Dees, Achille Momo, Bart Muys, Florian Kraxner and René Siwe
Forests 2019, 10(12), 1095; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10121095 - 02 Dec 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4277
Abstract
Research Highlights: A transparent approach to developing a forest reference emissions level (FREL) adjusted to future local developments in Southern Cameroon is demonstrated. Background and Objectives: Countries with low historical deforestation can adjust their forest reference (emission) level (FREL/FRL) upwards for [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: A transparent approach to developing a forest reference emissions level (FREL) adjusted to future local developments in Southern Cameroon is demonstrated. Background and Objectives: Countries with low historical deforestation can adjust their forest reference (emission) level (FREL/FRL) upwards for REDD+ to account for likely future developments. Many countries, however, find it difficult to establish a credible adjusted reference level. This article demonstrates the establishment of a FREL for southern Cameroon adjusted to societal megatrends of strong population—and economic growth combined with rapid urbanization. It demonstrates what can be done with available information and data, but most importantly outlines pathways to further improve the quality of future FREL/FRL’s in light of possibly accessing performance-based payments. Materials and Methods: The virtual FREL encompasses three main elements: Remotely sensed activity data; emission factors derived from the national forest inventory; and the adjustment of the reference level using a land use model of the agriculture sector. Sensitivity analysis is performed on all three elements using Monte Carlo methods. Results: Deforestation during the virtual reference period 2000–2015 is dominated by non-industrial agriculture (comprising both smallholders and local elites) and increases over time. The land use model projections are consistent with this trend, resulting in emissions that are on average 47% higher during the virtual performance period 2020–2030 than during the reference period 2000–2015. Monte Carlo analysis points to the adjustment term as the main driver of uncertainty in the FREL calculation. Conclusions: The available data is suitable for constructing a FREL for periodic reporting to the UNFCCC. Enhanced coherence of input data notably for activity data and adjustment is needed to apply for a performance-based payment scheme. Expanding the accounting framework to include forest degradation and forest gain are further priorities requiring future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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14 pages, 3649 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Pinus massoniana Leaf Area Using Terrestrial Laser Scanning
by Yangbo Deng, Kunyong Yu, Xiong Yao, Qiaoya Xie, Yita Hsieh and Jian Liu
Forests 2019, 10(8), 660; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10080660 - 06 Aug 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2590
Abstract
The accurate estimation of leaf area is of great importance for the acquisition of information on the forest canopy structure. Currently, direct harvesting is used to obtain leaf area; however, it is difficult to quickly and effectively extract the leaf area of a [...] Read more.
The accurate estimation of leaf area is of great importance for the acquisition of information on the forest canopy structure. Currently, direct harvesting is used to obtain leaf area; however, it is difficult to quickly and effectively extract the leaf area of a forest. Although remote sensing technology can obtain leaf area by using a wide range of leaf area estimates, such technology cannot accurately estimate leaf area at small spatial scales. The purpose of this study is to examine the use of terrestrial laser scanning data to achieve a fast, accurate, and non-destructive estimation of individual tree leaf area. We use terrestrial laser scanning data to obtain 3D point cloud data for individual tree canopies of Pinus massoniana. Using voxel conversion, we develop a model for the number of voxels and canopy leaf area and then apply it to the 3D data. The results show significant positive correlations between reference leaf area and mass (R2 = 0.8603; p < 0.01). Our findings demonstrate that using terrestrial laser point cloud data with a layer thickness of 0.1 m and voxel size of 0.05 m can effectively improve leaf area estimations. We verify the suitability of the voxel-based method for estimating the leaf area of P. massoniana and confirmed the effectiveness of this non-destructive method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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18 pages, 3438 KiB  
Article
Tree Biomass Equations from Terrestrial LiDAR: A Case Study in Guyana
by Alvaro Lau, Kim Calders, Harm Bartholomeus, Christopher Martius, Pasi Raumonen, Martin Herold, Matheus Vicari, Hansrajie Sukhdeo, Jeremy Singh and Rosa C. Goodman
Forests 2019, 10(6), 527; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10060527 - 25 Jun 2019
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 8376
Abstract
Large uncertainties in tree and forest carbon estimates weaken national efforts to accurately estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) for their national monitoring, measurement, reporting and verification system. Allometric equations to estimate biomass have improved, but remain limited. They rely on destructive sampling; large trees [...] Read more.
Large uncertainties in tree and forest carbon estimates weaken national efforts to accurately estimate aboveground biomass (AGB) for their national monitoring, measurement, reporting and verification system. Allometric equations to estimate biomass have improved, but remain limited. They rely on destructive sampling; large trees are under-represented in the data used to create them; and they cannot always be applied to different regions. These factors lead to uncertainties and systematic errors in biomass estimations. We developed allometric models to estimate tree AGB in Guyana. These models were based on tree attributes (diameter, height, crown diameter) obtained from terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point clouds from 72 tropical trees and wood density. We validated our methods and models with data from 26 additional destructively harvested trees. We found that our best TLS-derived allometric models included crown diameter, provided more accurate AGB estimates ( R 2 = 0.92–0.93) than traditional pantropical models ( R 2 = 0.85–0.89), and were especially accurate for large trees (diameter > 70 cm). The assessed pantropical models underestimated AGB by 4 to 13%. Nevertheless, one pantropical model (Chave et al. 2005 without height) consistently performed best among the pantropical models tested ( R 2 = 0.89) and predicted AGB accurately across all size classes—which but for this could not be known without destructive or TLS-derived validation data. Our methods also demonstrate that tree height is difficult to measure in situ, and the inclusion of height in allometric models consistently worsened AGB estimates. We determined that TLS-derived AGB estimates were unbiased. Our approach advances methods to be able to develop, test, and choose allometric models without the need to harvest trees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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21 pages, 23043 KiB  
Article
Testing a New Ensemble Model Based on SVM and Random Forest in Forest Fire Susceptibility Assessment and Its Mapping in Serbia’s Tara National Park
by Ljubomir Gigović, Hamid Reza Pourghasemi, Siniša Drobnjak and Shibiao Bai
Forests 2019, 10(5), 408; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10050408 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 126 | Viewed by 9326
Abstract
The main objectives of this paper are to demonstrate the results of an ensemble learning method based on prediction results of support vector machine and random forest methods using Bayesian average. In this study, we generated susceptibility maps of forest fire using supervised [...] Read more.
The main objectives of this paper are to demonstrate the results of an ensemble learning method based on prediction results of support vector machine and random forest methods using Bayesian average. In this study, we generated susceptibility maps of forest fire using supervised machine learning method (support vector machine—SVM) and its comparison with a versatile machine learning algorithm (random forest—RF) and their ensembles. In order to achieve this, first of all, a forest fire inventory map was constructed using Serbian historical forest fire database, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro radiometer (MODIS), Landsat 8 OLI and Worldview-2 satellite images, field surveys, and interpretation of aerial photo images. A total of 126 forest fire locations were identified and randomly divided by a random selection algorithm into two groups, including training (70%) and validation data sets (30%). Forest fire susceptibility maps were prepared using SVM, RF, and their ensemble models using the training dataset and 14 selected different conditioning factors. Finally, to explore the performance of the mentioned models we used the values for area under the curve (AUC) of receiver operating characteristics (ROC). The results depicted that the ensemble model had an AUC = 0.848, followed by the SVM model (AUC = 0.844), and RF model (AUC = 0.834). According to achieved AUC results, it can be deduced that SVM, RF, and their ensemble method had satisfactory performance. The study was applied in the Tara National Park (West Serbia), a region of about 191.7 sq. km distinguished by a very high forest density and a large number of forest fires. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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22 pages, 13764 KiB  
Article
Forest Growing Stock Volume Estimation in Subtropical Mountain Areas Using PALSAR-2 L-Band PolSAR Data
by Haibo Zhang, Jianjun Zhu, Changcheng Wang, Hui Lin, Jiangping Long, Lei Zhao, Haiqiang Fu and Zhiwei Liu
Forests 2019, 10(3), 276; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10030276 - 20 Mar 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4085
Abstract
Forest growing stock volume (GSV) extraction using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images has been widely used in climate change research. However, the relationships between forest GSV and polarimetric SAR (PolSAR) data in the mountain region of central China remain unknown. Moreover, it is [...] Read more.
Forest growing stock volume (GSV) extraction using synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images has been widely used in climate change research. However, the relationships between forest GSV and polarimetric SAR (PolSAR) data in the mountain region of central China remain unknown. Moreover, it is challenging to estimate GSV due to the complex topography of the region. In this paper, we estimated the forest GSV from advanced land observing satellite-2 (ALOS-2) phased array-type L-band synthetic aperture radar (PALSAR-2) full polarimetric SAR data based on ground truth data collected in Youxian County, Central China in 2016. An integrated three-stage (polarization orientation angle, POA; effective scattering area, ESA; and angular variation effect, AVE) correction method was used to reduce the negative impact of topography on the backscatter coefficient. In the AVE correction stage, a strategy for fine terrain correction was attempted to obtain the optimum correction parameters for different polarization channels. The elements on the diagonal of covariance matrix were used to develop forest GSV prediction models through five single-variable models and a multi-variable model. The results showed that the integrated three-stage terrain correction reduced the negative influence of topography and improved the sensitivity between the forest GSV and backscatter coefficients. In the three stages, the POA compensation was limited in its ability to reduce the impact of complex terrain, the ESA correction was more effective in low-local incidence angles area than high-local incidence angles, and the effect of the AVE correction was opposite to the ESA correction. The data acquired on 14 July 2016 was most suitable for GSV estimation in this study area due to its correlation with GSV, which was the strongest at HH, HV, and VV polarizations. The correlation coefficient values were 0.489, 0.643, and 0.473, respectively, which were improved by 0.363, 0.373, and 0.366 in comparison to before terrain correction. In the five single-variable models, the fitting performance of the Water-Cloud analysis model was the best, and the correlation coefficient R2 value was 0.612. The constructed multi-variable model produced a better inversion result, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 70.965 m3/ha, which was improved by 22.08% in comparison to the single-variable models. Finally, the space distribution map of forest GSV was established using the multi-variable model. The range of estimated forest GSV was 0 to 450 m3/ha, and the mean value was 135.759 m3/ha. The study expands the application potential of PolSAR data in complex topographic areas; thus, it is helpful and valuable for the estimation of large-scale forest parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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18 pages, 4448 KiB  
Article
Landsat 8 Based Leaf Area Index Estimation in Loblolly Pine Plantations
by Christine E. Blinn, Matthew N. House, Randolph H. Wynne, Valerie A. Thomas, Thomas R. Fox and Matthew Sumnall
Forests 2019, 10(3), 222; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10030222 - 02 Mar 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5079
Abstract
Leaf area index (LAI) is an important biophysical parameter used to monitor, model, and manage loblolly pine plantations across the southeastern United States. Landsat provides forest scientists and managers the ability to obtain accurate and timely LAI estimates. The objective of this study [...] Read more.
Leaf area index (LAI) is an important biophysical parameter used to monitor, model, and manage loblolly pine plantations across the southeastern United States. Landsat provides forest scientists and managers the ability to obtain accurate and timely LAI estimates. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between loblolly pine LAI measured in situ (at both leaf area minimum and maximum through two growing seasons at two geographically disparate study areas) and vegetation indices calculated using data from Landsat 7 (ETM+) and Landsat 8 (OLI). Sub-objectives included examination of the impact of georegistration accuracy, comparison of top-of-atmosphere and surface reflectance, development of a new empirical model for the species and region, and comparison of the new empirical model with the current operational standard. Permanent plots for the collection of ground LAI measurements were established at two locations near Appomattox, Virginia and Tuscaloosa, Alabama in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Each plot is thirty by thirty meters in size and is located at least thirty meters from a stand boundary. Plot LAI measurements were collected twice a year using the LI-COR LAI-2200 Plant Canopy Analyzer. Ground measurements were used as dependent variables in ordinary least squares regressions with ETM+ and OLI-derived vegetation indices. We conclude that accurately-located ground LAI estimates at minimum and maximum LAI in loblolly pine stands can be combined and modeled with Landsat-derived vegetation indices using surface reflectance, particularly simple ratio (SR) and normalized difference moisture index (NDMI), across sites and sensors. The best resulting model (LAI = −0.00212 + 0.3329SR) appears not to saturate through an LAI of 5 and is an improvement over the current operational standard for loblolly pine monitoring, modeling, and management in this ecologically and economically important region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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19 pages, 6010 KiB  
Article
Identifying European Old-Growth Forests using Remote Sensing: A Study in the Ukrainian Carpathians
by Benedict D. Spracklen and Dominick V. Spracklen
Forests 2019, 10(2), 127; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10020127 - 05 Feb 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6809
Abstract
Old-growth forests are an important, rare and endangered habitat in Europe. The ability to identify old-growth forests through remote sensing would be helpful for both conservation and forest management. We used data on beech, Norway spruce and mountain pine old-growth forests in the [...] Read more.
Old-growth forests are an important, rare and endangered habitat in Europe. The ability to identify old-growth forests through remote sensing would be helpful for both conservation and forest management. We used data on beech, Norway spruce and mountain pine old-growth forests in the Ukrainian Carpathians to test whether Sentinel-2 satellite images could be used to correctly identify these forests. We used summer and autumn 2017 Sentinel-2 satellite images comprising 10 and 20 m resolution bands to create 6 vegetation indices and 9 textural features. We used a Random Forest classification model to discriminate between dominant tree species within old-growth forests and between old-growth and other forest types. Beech and Norway spruce were identified with an overall accuracy of around 90%, with a lower performance for mountain pine (70%) and mixed forest (40%). Old-growth forests were identified with an overall classification accuracy of 85%. Adding textural features, band standard deviations and elevation data improved accuracies by 3.3%, 2.1% and 1.8% respectively, while using combined summer and autumn images increased accuracy by 1.2%. We conclude that Random Forest classification combined with Sentinel-2 images can provide an effective option for identifying old-growth forests in Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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17 pages, 4379 KiB  
Article
Improving Forest Aboveground Biomass (AGB) Estimation by Incorporating Crown Density and Using Landsat 8 OLI Images of a Subtropical Forest in Western Hunan in Central China
by Chao Li, Yingchang Li and Mingyang Li
Forests 2019, 10(2), 104; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f10020104 - 29 Jan 2019
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4224
Abstract
Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation modeling based on remote sensing is an important method for large-scale biomass estimation; the accuracy of the estimation models has been a topic of broad and current interest. In this study, we used permanent sample plot data and [...] Read more.
Forest aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation modeling based on remote sensing is an important method for large-scale biomass estimation; the accuracy of the estimation models has been a topic of broad and current interest. In this study, we used permanent sample plot data and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) images of western Hunan. Remote-sensing-based models were developed for different vegetation types, and different crown density classes were incorporated. The linear model, linear dummy variable model, and linear mixed-effects model were used to determine the most effective and accurate method for remote-sensing-based AGB estimation. The results show that the adjusted coefficient of determination (R2adj) and root mean square error (RMSE) of the linear dummy model and linear mixed-effects model were significantly better than those of the linear model; the R2adj increased more than 0.16 and the RMSE decreased more than 2.12 for each vegetation type, and the F-test also showed significant differences between the linear model and linear dummy variable model and between the linear model and linear mixed-effects model. The accuracies of the AGB estimations of the linear dummy variable model and the linear mixed-effects model were significantly better than those of linear model in the thin and dense crown density classes. There were no significant differences in the AGB estimation performance between the linear dummy variable model and linear mixed-effects model; these two models were more flexible and more suitable than the linear model for remote-sensing-based AGB estimation. The results of this study provide a new approach for solving the low-accuracy estimations of linear models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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21 pages, 9613 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Variations of Aboveground Biomass under Different Terrain Conditions
by Aihua Shen, Chaofan Wu, Bo Jiang, Jinsong Deng, Weigao Yuan, Ke Wang, Shan He, Enyan Zhu, Yue Lin and Chuping Wu
Forests 2018, 9(12), 778; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9120778 - 17 Dec 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3413
Abstract
Biomass is a key biophysical parameter used to estimate carbon storage and forest productivity. Spatially-explicit estimation of biomass provides invaluable information for carbon stock calculation and scientific forest management. Nevertheless, there still exists large uncertainty concerning the relationship between biomass and influential factors. [...] Read more.
Biomass is a key biophysical parameter used to estimate carbon storage and forest productivity. Spatially-explicit estimation of biomass provides invaluable information for carbon stock calculation and scientific forest management. Nevertheless, there still exists large uncertainty concerning the relationship between biomass and influential factors. In this study, aboveground biomass (AGB) was estimated using the random forest algorithm based on remote sensing imagery (Landsat) and field data for three regions with different topographic conditions in Zhejiang Province, China. AGB distribution and change combined with stratified terrain classifications were analyzed to investigate the relations between AGB and topography conditions. The results indicated that AGB in three regions increased from 2010 to 2015 and the magnitude of growth varied with elevation, slope, and aspect. In the basin region, slope had a greater influence on AGB, and we attributed this negative AGB-elevation relationship to ecological forest construction. In the mountain area, terrain features, especially elevation, showed significant relations with AGB. Moreover, AGB and its growth showed positive relations with elevation and slope. In the island region, slope also played a relatively more important role in explaining the relationship. These results demonstrate that AGB varies with terrain conditions and its change is a consequence of interactions between the natural environment and anthropogenic behavior, implying that biomass retrieval based on Landsat imagery could provide considerable important information related to regional heterogeneity investigations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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16 pages, 4506 KiB  
Article
LiDAR-Based Regional Inventory of Tall Trees—Wellington, New Zealand
by Jan Zörner, John R. Dymond, James D. Shepherd, Susan K. Wiser and Ben Jolly
Forests 2018, 9(11), 702; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9110702 - 13 Nov 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6644
Abstract
Indigenous forests cover 23.9% of New Zealand’s land area and provide highly valued ecosystem services, including climate regulation, habitat for native biota, regulation of soil erosion and recreation. Despite their importance, information on the number of tall trees and the tree height distribution [...] Read more.
Indigenous forests cover 23.9% of New Zealand’s land area and provide highly valued ecosystem services, including climate regulation, habitat for native biota, regulation of soil erosion and recreation. Despite their importance, information on the number of tall trees and the tree height distribution across different forest classes is scarce. We present the first region-wide spatial inventory of tall trees (>30 m) based on airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) measurements in New Zealand—covering the Greater Wellington region. This region has 159,000 ha of indigenous forest, primarily on steep mountainous land. We implement a high-performance tree mapping algorithm that uses local maxima in a canopy height model (CHM) as initial tree locations and accurately identifies the tree top positions by combining a raster-based tree crown delineation approach with information from the digital surface and terrain models. Our algorithm includes a check and correction for over-estimated heights of trees on very steep terrain such as on cliff edges. The number of tall trees (>30 m) occurring in indigenous forest in the Wellington Region is estimated to be 286,041 (±1%) and the number of giant trees (>40 m tall) is estimated to be 7340 (±1%). Stereo-analysis of aerial photographs was used to determine the accuracy of the automated tree mapping. The giant trees are mainly in the beech-broadleaved-podocarp and broadleaved-podocarp forests, with density being 0.04 and 0.12 (trees per hectare) respectively. The inventory of tall trees in the Wellington Region established here improves the characterization of indigenous forests for management and provides a useful baseline for long-term monitoring of forest conditions. Our tree top detection scheme provides a simple and fast method to accurately map overstory trees in flat as well as mountainous areas and can be directly applied to improve existing and build new tree inventories in regions where LiDAR data is available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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16 pages, 4694 KiB  
Article
Estimating Forest Canopy Cover in Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) Plantations on the Loess Plateau Using Random Forest
by Qingxia Zhao, Fei Wang, Jun Zhao, Jingjing Zhou, Shichuan Yu and Zhong Zhao
Forests 2018, 9(10), 623; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9100623 - 10 Oct 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3792
Abstract
The forest canopy is the medium for energy and mass exchange between forest ecosystems and the atmosphere. Remote sensing techniques are more efficient and appropriate for estimating forest canopy cover (CC) than traditional methods, especially at large scales. In this study, we evaluated [...] Read more.
The forest canopy is the medium for energy and mass exchange between forest ecosystems and the atmosphere. Remote sensing techniques are more efficient and appropriate for estimating forest canopy cover (CC) than traditional methods, especially at large scales. In this study, we evaluated the CC of black locust plantations on the Loess Plateau using random forest (RF) regression models. The models were established using the relationships between digital hemispherical photograph (DHP) field data and variables that were calculated from satellite images. Three types of variables were calculated from the satellite data: spectral variables calculated from a multispectral image, textural variables calculated from a panchromatic image (Tpan) with a 15 × 15 window size, and textural variables calculated from spectral variables (TB+VIs) with a 9 × 9 window size. We compared different mtry and ntree values to find the most suitable parameters for the RF models. The results indicated that the RF model of spectral variables explained 57% (root mean square error (RMSE) = 0.06) of the variability in the field CC data. The soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) and enhanced vegetation index (EVI) were more important than other spectral variables. The RF model of Tpan obtained higher accuracy (R2 = 0.69, RMSE = 0.05) than the spectral variables, and the grey level co-occurrence matrix-based texture measure—Correlation (COR) was the most important variable for Tpan. The most accurate model was obtained from the TB+VIs (R2 = 0.79, RMSE = 0.05), which combined spectral and textural information, thus providing a significant improvement in estimating CC. This model provided an effective approach for detecting the CC of black locust plantations on the Loess Plateau. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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20 pages, 3777 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Forest Above-Ground Biomass by Geographically Weighted Regression and Machine Learning with Sentinel Imagery
by Lin Chen, Chunying Ren, Bai Zhang, Zongming Wang and Yanbiao Xi
Forests 2018, 9(10), 582; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f9100582 - 20 Sep 2018
Cited by 96 | Viewed by 8266
Abstract
Accurate forest above-ground biomass (AGB) is crucial for sustaining forest management and mitigating climate change to support REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, plus the sustainable management of forests, and the conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) processes. Recently launched [...] Read more.
Accurate forest above-ground biomass (AGB) is crucial for sustaining forest management and mitigating climate change to support REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, plus the sustainable management of forests, and the conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks) processes. Recently launched Sentinel imagery offers a new opportunity for forest AGB mapping and monitoring. In this study, texture characteristics and backscatter coefficients of Sentinel-1, in addition to multispectral bands, vegetation indices, and biophysical variables of Sentinal-2, based on 56 measured AGB samples in the center of the Changbai Mountains, China, were used to develop biomass prediction models through geographically weighted regression (GWR) and machine learning (ML) algorithms, such as the artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine for regression (SVR), and random forest (RF). The results showed that texture characteristics and vegetation biophysical variables were the most important predictors. SVR was the best method for predicting and mapping the patterns of AGB in the study site with limited samples, whose mean error, mean absolute error, root mean square error, and correlation coefficient were 4 × 10−3, 0.07, 0.08 Mg·ha−1, and 1, respectively. Predicted values of AGB from four models ranged from 11.80 to 324.12 Mg·ha−1, and those for broadleaved deciduous forests were the most accurate, while those for AGB above 160 Mg·ha−1 were the least accurate. The study demonstrated encouraging results in forest AGB mapping of the normal vegetated area using the freely accessible and high-resolution Sentinel imagery, based on ML techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Technology Applications in Forestry and REDD+)
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