Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood

A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Wood Science and Forest Products".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 10 May 2024 | Viewed by 44275

Special Issue Editors

Departamento de Sistemas y Recursos Naturales, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería de Montes, Forestal y del Medio Natural, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: wood; ontogeny; cell wall; anatomy; physical properties; mechanical properties; modified wood
Departamento de Sistemas y Recursos Naturales, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería de Montes, Forestal y del Medio Natural, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: wood; ontogeny; cell wall; anatomy; physical properties; mechanical properties; modified wood
Departamento de Sistemas y Recursos Naturales, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería de Montes, Forestal y del Medio Natural, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Interests: wood; ontogeny; cell wall; anatomy; physical properties; mechanical properties; modified wood

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues

Due to the many advances made in recent years in the knowledge of wood (xylogenesis, cell wall, anatomy, physical and mechanical properties, and unique features such as reaction wood, differences between juvenile and mature wood and the properties of modified wood), we believe it is necessary to review existing studies to create an issue that will be a reference for students, researchers and lecturers in their works on wood and its properties. Therefore, this special issue will accept only reviews of the proposed topics, by invitation. The aim is to publish high quality reviews that include a brief retrospective overview and a broad current review of the knowledge of the particular topic, accompanied by quality illustrations (see the example of xylogenesis).

Prof. Dr. Luis García Esteban
Dr. Paloma de Palacios
Dr. Francisco Garcia Fernández
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All papers will be peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • xylogenesis
  • cell wall: ultrastructure and chemical composition
  • macroscopic structure
  • juvenile and mature wood
  • reaction wood
  • softwood anatomy
  • hardwood anatomy
  • water-wood relationships
  • mechanical properties of wood
  • electrical and thermal properties of wood
  • acoustic properties of wood
  • modified wood
  • wood degradation agents

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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97 pages, 144318 KiB  
Article
A Review on Acoustics of Wood as a Tool for Quality Assessment
by Voichita Bucur
Forests 2023, 14(8), 1545; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14081545 - 28 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1410
Abstract
Acoustics is a field with significant application in wood science and technology for the classification and grading, through non-destructive tests, of a large variety of products from standing trees to building structural elements and musical instruments. In this review article the following aspects [...] Read more.
Acoustics is a field with significant application in wood science and technology for the classification and grading, through non-destructive tests, of a large variety of products from standing trees to building structural elements and musical instruments. In this review article the following aspects are treated: (1) The theoretical background related to acoustical characterization of wood as an orthotropic material. We refer to the wave propagation in anisotropic media, to the wood anatomic structure and propagation phenomena, to the velocity of ultrasonic waves and the elastic constants of an orthotropic solid. The acoustic methods for the determination of the elastic constants of wood range from the low frequency domain to the ultrasonic domain using direct contact techniques or ultrasonic spectroscopy. (2) The acoustic and ultrasonic methods for quality assessment of trees, logs, lumber and structural timber products. Scattering-based techniques and ultrasonic tomography are used for quality assessment of standing trees and green logs. The methods are based on scanning stress waves using dry-point-contact ultrasound or air-coupled ultrasound and are discussed for quality assessment of structural composite timber products and for delamination detection in wood-based composite boards. (3) The high-power ultrasound as a field with important potential for industrial applications such as wood drying and other applications. (4) The methods for the characterization of acoustical properties of the wood species used for musical instrument manufacturing, wood anisotropy, the quality of wood for musical instruments and the factors of influence related to the environmental conditions, the natural aging of wood and the effects of long-term loading by static or dynamic regimes on wood properties. Today, the acoustics of wood is a branch of wood science with huge applications in industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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Review

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61 pages, 12964 KiB  
Review
Mechanical Properties of Wood: A Review
by Francisco Arriaga, Xiping Wang, Guillermo Íñiguez-González, Daniel F. Llana, Miguel Esteban and Peter Niemz
Forests 2023, 14(6), 1202; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14061202 - 09 Jun 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6627
Abstract
The use of wood in construction requires knowledge of the mechanical properties and the particularities that wood presents in comparison with other materials used for structural purposes such as steel, concrete, brick, or stone. The introduction mentions the environmental advantages that justify the [...] Read more.
The use of wood in construction requires knowledge of the mechanical properties and the particularities that wood presents in comparison with other materials used for structural purposes such as steel, concrete, brick, or stone. The introduction mentions the environmental advantages that justify the use of wood today. The orthotropy of wood is one of the differentiating characteristics that must be taken into account when studying its behaviour. The determination of the properties of wood is then addressed from a historical perspective and the differentiation is made between the properties of small clear wood (defect-free timber) and structural timber. The timber grading systems (visual and mechanical grading) and the non-destructive techniques that currently prevail are explained. Finally, the factors that influence the mechanical properties, such as duration of the load, moisture content, quality, temperature, and the effect of size are explained. The objective of this work is to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the mechanical properties of wood, based mainly on published articles and European and North American standards, including historical references to the beginnings and current trends in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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36 pages, 28070 KiB  
Review
The Macroscopic Structure of Wood
by Flavio Ruffinatto, Francesco Negro and Alan Crivellaro
Forests 2023, 14(3), 644; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14030644 - 21 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4772
Abstract
Understanding the macroscopic structure of wood and its formation is essential to identifying wood and evaluating its properties and quality. Depending on genetic background, environmental conditions, and tree developmental stage, the macroscopic structure of wood can vary greatly and produce specific macroscopic signatures. [...] Read more.
Understanding the macroscopic structure of wood and its formation is essential to identifying wood and evaluating its properties and quality. Depending on genetic background, environmental conditions, and tree developmental stage, the macroscopic structure of wood can vary greatly and produce specific macroscopic signatures. Here, a comprehensive outline of the wood’s macroscopic structure and the features that can be used to identify wood by macroscopic examination is presented. The planes of observations are first depicted, and the fundamental differences between softwoods and hardwoods are outlined. Then, all the different cell characteristics, arrangements, and distributions that can be macroscopically observed are illustrated with their influence on wood figure and texture and non-anatomical features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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67 pages, 137730 KiB  
Review
Softwood Anatomy: A Review
by Luis G. Esteban, Paloma de Palacios, Immo Heinz, Peter Gasson, Alberto García-Iruela and Francisco García-Fernández
Forests 2023, 14(2), 323; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14020323 - 06 Feb 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2901
Abstract
Although conifers have very homogeneous wood anatomical structure, some of their features allow differentiation of genera or groups of genera. Softwood anatomy is reviewed and the authors have added contributions, grouping features in five blocks (axial tracheids, axial parenchyma, rays, resin canals and [...] Read more.
Although conifers have very homogeneous wood anatomical structure, some of their features allow differentiation of genera or groups of genera. Softwood anatomy is reviewed and the authors have added contributions, grouping features in five blocks (axial tracheids, axial parenchyma, rays, resin canals and mineral inclusions), with special attention to their diagnostic value at the family, genus or species levels. The discussion addresses, in axial tracheids: growth rings, intercellular spaces, pit arrangement, presence of scalloped tori, torus extensions, notches, warty layer, organic deposits, helical and callitroid thickenings, bars of Sanio and trabeculae; in axial parenchyma: presence or absence, arrangement and type of transverse end walls; in rays: composition, type of horizontal and end walls and cross-field pitting; in resin canals: epithelium and the presence of normal or traumatic resin canals; and in mineral inclusions: presence or absence. Wood structure is characterised at the family level, discussing the main elements that can be used for diagnosis at the genus level or in groups of genera. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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34 pages, 7584 KiB  
Review
Biological Deterioration and Natural Durability of Wood in Europe
by Juan A. Martín and Rosana López
Forests 2023, 14(2), 283; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f14020283 - 01 Feb 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5672
Abstract
In recent years, the use of wood has gained social interest, leading to a global increase in its demand. Yet, this demand is often covered by the production of woods of low natural durability against biological deterioration. The main biological agents with the [...] Read more.
In recent years, the use of wood has gained social interest, leading to a global increase in its demand. Yet, this demand is often covered by the production of woods of low natural durability against biological deterioration. The main biological agents with the potential to attack the structural integrity of wood are wood-decay fungi, saproxylic beetles, termites, and marine molluscs and crustaceans. In most circumstances, fungi are the main wood-deteriorating agents. To attack the cell wall, wood-decay fungi combine a complex enzymatic mechanism with non-enzymatic mechanisms based on low-molecular-weight compounds. In some cases, the larvae of saproxylic beetles can also digest cell wood components, causing serious deterioration to wooden structures. The impact of subterranean termites in Europe is concentrated in the Southern countries, causing important economic losses. However, alien invasive species of voracious subterranean termites are expanding their presence in Europe. Wooden elements in permanent contact with marine water can be readily deteriorated by mollusc and crustacean borers, for which current preservatives lack efficacy. The natural durability of wood is defined as the inherent resistance of wood to catastrophic action by wood-destroying organisms. Besides exposure to the climate, product design and use conditions, the natural durability of wood is key to the prediction of the service life of wooden products, which can be shortened due to the impact of global change. The major wood properties involved in natural durability are related to the composition of lignin in the cell wall, the anatomy of the xylem, nutrient availability, the amount and composition of heartwood extractives, and the presence of moisture-regulating components since wood moisture content influences the establishment of wood-degrading organisms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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30 pages, 3691 KiB  
Review
Water in Wood: A Review of Current Understanding and Knowledge Gaps
by Emil Engelund Thybring, Maria Fredriksson, Samuel L. Zelinka and Samuel V. Glass
Forests 2022, 13(12), 2051; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13122051 - 02 Dec 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 9494
Abstract
Wood-water interactions are central to the utilization of wood in our society since water affects many important characteristics of wood. This topic has been investigated for more than a century, but new knowledge continues to be generated as a result of improved experimental [...] Read more.
Wood-water interactions are central to the utilization of wood in our society since water affects many important characteristics of wood. This topic has been investigated for more than a century, but new knowledge continues to be generated as a result of improved experimental and computational methods. This review summarizes our current understanding of the fundamentals of water in wood and highlights significant knowledge gaps. Thus, the focus is not only on what is currently known but equally important, what is yet unknown. The review covers locations of water in wood; phase changes and equilibrium states of water in wood; thermodynamics of sorption; terminology including cell wall water (bound water), capillary water (free water), fiber saturation point, and maximum cell wall moisture content; shrinkage and swelling; sorption hysteresis; transport of water in wood; and kinetics of water vapor sorption in the cell wall. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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26 pages, 1590 KiB  
Review
Computer Vision-Based Wood Identification: A Review
by José Luís Silva, Rui Bordalo, José Pissarra and Paloma de Palacios
Forests 2022, 13(12), 2041; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13122041 - 30 Nov 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3438
Abstract
Wood identification is an important tool in many areas, from biology to cultural heritage. In the fight against illegal logging, it has a more necessary and impactful application. Identifying a wood sample to genus or species level is difficult, expensive and time-consuming, even [...] Read more.
Wood identification is an important tool in many areas, from biology to cultural heritage. In the fight against illegal logging, it has a more necessary and impactful application. Identifying a wood sample to genus or species level is difficult, expensive and time-consuming, even when using the most recent methods, resulting in a growing need for a readily accessible and field-applicable method for scientific wood identification. Providing fast results and ease of use, computer vision-based technology is an economically accessible option currently applied to meet the demand for automated wood identification. However, despite the promising characteristics and accurate results of this method, it remains a niche research area in wood sciences and is little known in other fields of application such as cultural heritage. To share the results and applicability of computer vision-based wood identification, this paper reviews the most frequently cited and relevant published research based on computer vision and machine learning techniques, aiming to facilitate and promote the use of this technology in research and encourage its application among end-users who need quick and reliable results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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46 pages, 4818 KiB  
Review
Review of Wood Modification and Wood Functionalization Technologies
by Samuel L. Zelinka, Michael Altgen, Lukas Emmerich, Nathanael Guigo, Tobias Keplinger, Maija Kymäläinen, Emil E. Thybring and Lisbeth G. Thygesen
Forests 2022, 13(7), 1004; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13071004 - 26 Jun 2022
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 8258
Abstract
Wood modifications are becoming popular as a way to enhance the performance of wood, either to make it more durable, improve the performance of wood, or give it new functionality as a multifunctional or smart material. While wood modifications have been examined since [...] Read more.
Wood modifications are becoming popular as a way to enhance the performance of wood, either to make it more durable, improve the performance of wood, or give it new functionality as a multifunctional or smart material. While wood modifications have been examined since the early 1900s, the topic has become a dominant area of study in wood science over the past decade. This review summarizes recent advances and provides future perspective on a selection of wood modifications, i.e., the methods that are currently commercialized (acetylation, furfurylation, and thermal modification), a rediscovered ancient practice (charring), a family of polymerization modifications that have so far made it to the pilot scale, and examples of novel wood-based functional materials explored at laboratory scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reviews on Structure and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood)
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