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Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure

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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecophysiology and Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 19017

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Dr. Carlos A. López-Sánchez

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Guest Editor

Smart Forest Group, Department of Biology of Organisms and Systems, Mieres Polytechnic School, University of Oviedo, 33600 Oviedo, Spain
Interests: remote sensing; forest management and modelling; biogeography and conservation; global change
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Christian Wehenkel

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Co-Guest Editor

Instituto de Silvicultura e Industria de la Madera, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Durango 34120, Mexico
Interests: biodiversity; sustainability; conservation biology; forestry; silviculture; forest fragmentation; tropical forest ecology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Marcos Barrio-Anta

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Organisms and Systems Biology, GIS-Forest Research Group, Polytechnic School of Mieres, University of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
Interests: biodiversity & conservation; forest ecology; forest management; silviculture
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Forest structure is a product as well as factor of ecosystem processes and biological diversity. Understanding forest structure can thus help in understanding the history, function, and future of a forest ecosystem. Moreover, information about forest structure provides a fundamental basis for the analysis of forest ecosystem disturbance. Forest structure refers to the patterns and relationships between traits, including structural type, shape, size, and spatial distribution (vertical and horizontal), and also the attributes of components. Many of these components are fundamental to the functioning and diversity of ecosystems.

Tree species diversity affects ecological processes such as primary productivity, population recovery from disturbances, interspeciﬁc competition, community structure, and ﬂuxes of energy and nutrients. Thus, tree species diversity is an important factor for ecosystem health.

Understanding the relationships between forest structure and environmental variables or disturbances is a key to implementing sustainable forest management or for biodiversity conservation purposes, under uncertain future human and climate scenarios.

In recent decades, the exponential increase of available data (big data) and the use of sophisticated statistical tools such as “machine learning” or “deep learning” techniques has allowed hidden patterns to emerge so far.

In this Forests Special Issue, entitled “Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure”, we aim to collect timely and emerging research in this field. We encourage researchers to send contributions (research and review articles) on the following topics:

Analysis of environmental patterns or human disturbances effecting tree diversity and forest structure;
Modeling forest structure as a function of environmental variables and/or human disturbances;
Comparison among different statistics approaches;
Relationships between forest structure and understory vegetation;
Effect of climate change on forest structure and tree diversity;
Analysis of adaptation or mitigation measures on the basis of the environmental patterns between tree diversity and forest structure and climate change;
Spatial genetic structures in forest ecosystems.

Dr. Carlos A. Lopez-Sanchez

Dr. Marcos Barrio-Anta
Prof. Dr. Christian Wehenkel
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Forest structure
Tree diversity
Environmental variables
Human disturbances
Climate change
Sustainable management
Biological conservation
Forest modeling
Tree or forest spatial analysis

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 1487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Centre–Periphery Model, a Possible Explanation for the Distribution of Some Pinus spp. in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico

by Claudia Lizbeth Ramírez-Orozco, José Ciro Hernández-Díaz, Artemio Carrillo-Parra, Christian Wehenkel, Carmen Zulema Quiñones-Pérez, Carlos A. López-Sánchez and Claudia Edith Bailón-Soto

Forests 2022, 13(2), 215; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f13020215 - 31 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2140

Abstract

Genetic diversity is key to survival of species. In evolutionary ecology, the general centre–periphery theory suggests that populations of species located at the margins of their distribution areas display less genetic diversity and greater genetic differentiation than populations from central areas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic diversity and differentiation in six of the main pine species of the Sierra Madre Occidental (northern Mexico). The species considered were Pinus arizonica, P. cembroides, P. durangensis, Pinus engelmannii, P. herrerae and P. leiophylla, which occur at the margins and centre of the geographic distribution. We sampled needles from 2799 individuals belonging to 80 populations of the six species. We analysed amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) to estimate diversity and rarity indexes, applied Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA), and used the Kruskal–Wallis test to detect genetic differences. Finally, we calculated Spearman’s correlation for association between variables. The general centre–periphery model only explained the traits in P. herrerae. The elevation gradient was an important factor that influenced genetic diversity. However, for elevation as partitioning criterion, most populations showed a central distribution. This information may be useful for establishing seed collections of priority individuals for maintenance in germplasm banks and their subsequent sustainable use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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17 pages, 2826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Environmental Factors on Forest Understorey Species in Northern Mexico

by Juan F. Maciel-Nájera, M. Socorro González-Elizondo, José Ciro Hernández-Díaz, Carlos A. López-Sánchez, Claudia Edith Bailón-Soto, Artemio Carrillo-Parra and Christian Wehenkel

Forests 2021, 12(9), 1198; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12091198 - 03 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1618

Abstract

Background: Understorey plants are key to maintaining forest structure and functioning. They protect the soil, improve its structure and fertility, reduce water run-off and sustain the below-ground biota, amongst other ecological services. However, little is known about the environmental conditions that regulate the occurrence of these plants. This study focuses on determining how canopy cover influences the occurrence of understorey species and identifying the most important soil properties that affect these species. The study area was a pine-oak forest in the Sierra Madre Occidental, an important source of ecological services for northwestern Mexico. Methods: To assess the conditions influencing the presence of herbaceous and shrub species, 25 soil variables were examined in relation to the species occurring in forest gaps and under the canopy. Sampling was conducted in five plots, each of 100 × 100 m. In each plot, 4 subplots, each of 20 × 20 m, were each subdivided in a grid of 2 × 2 m units, in which the presence-absence of herbaceous and shrub species was recorded (2000 units in total). Soil samples were extracted for analysis from the central point in each subplot. Data were analyzed using a Binomial Logistic Model (BLM) and Random Forest (RF) classification. Results: Understorey species were more strongly affected by soil variables than by their location in gaps or below canopy. The concentrations of Ca, P, K, Fe, Na, C, Zn, Mn, nitrates, organic matter, sand, silt, and percentage water saturation were statistically significantly associated with the presence of some plant species, whilst no significant differences were found in regard to preference for gaps or canopy, although several species were more frequent in open areas. Conclusions: Given the importance of the understorey cover in forest system functioning, we propose that understorey should be considered in integrated management and conservation practices for the temperate forests of northern Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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18 pages, 3572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Mixing on the Structural Diversity of Serbian Spruce and Macedonian Pine Endemic to Relict Forest Communities in the Balkan Peninsula

by Aleksandar Popović, Damjan Pantić, Milan Medarević, Biljana Šljukić and Snežana Obradović

Forests 2021, 12(8), 1095; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12081095 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1588

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to analyze the effect of different degrees of mixing on the diversity structure in stands left to spontaneous development. The research included two communities of species endemic to the Balkan Peninsula—the Serbian spruce (Picea omorika Pančić Purk.) and the Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce Griseb). Data from eight sample plots were used in the research. The changes in diameter and height structure, spatial arrangement of trees, and diameter differentiation were analyzed. The analyzed parameters of structural diversity show relatively low to moderate values. Results showed an increase in mixing was reflected in the width and shape of distributions. A spatial analysis of stands with a higher degree of mixing showed a tendency towards a random to regular distribution of individuals, in contrast to stands with a lower degree of mixing which showed a tendency towards a clump distribution. The pronounced species’ dimensional and spatial diversity confirms their importance to the condition of modern forest management. Significant differences in the change of structure are shown by stands with a share of admixed species of above 20% by volume. The obtained results refer to stands left to spontaneous development, suggesting than an active research and management approach must be assumed to realize the goal of protecting rare forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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16 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disentangling the Relationship between Tree Biomass Yield and Tree Diversity in Mediterranean Mixed Forests

by Felipe Bravo, Ana Martín Ariza, Narangarav Dugarsuren and Cristóbal Ordóñez

Forests 2021, 12(7), 848; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12070848 - 27 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2046

Abstract

Tree biomass and the diversity relationship in mixed forest have an impact on forest ecosystem services provisions. Tree biomass yield is driven by several aspects such as species identity, site condition, stand density, tree age and tree diversity expressed as species mingling and structural diversity. By comparing diverse degrees of tree mixtures in natural forests, we can gain insight into the ecosystem services provision level and dynamic. Two monitoring sites in the Castilian Northern Plateau (Spain) have been analyzed to disentangle the relationships between biodiversity levels and tree biomass yield. Two permanent one hectare (ha) squared plots were established at Llano de San Marugán and Valdepoza. In each plot, all individual trees were measured (diameter and height), georeferenced and its species identity defined. Tree species in the two sites were Pinus sylvestris, Pinus nigra, Pinus pinea, Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus ilex, Quercus faginea and Juniperus thurifera. From these datasets, ten diversity indices that fall in three categories (species richness indices, species compositional/mingling indices and vertical structural indices) were used as predictor variables to fit several candidate models. By merging the trees by site (without considering the species identity) selected models include individual tree basal area as an explanatory variable combining by addition or interaction with diversity indices. When species are analyzed independently, structural diversity impacts on biomass yield in combination (additive or multiplicative) with tree size is negative for Pinus nigra and positive for the other species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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17 pages, 23051 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Comparison of Soil Properties, Understory Vegetation Species Diversities and Soil Microbial Diversities between Chinese Fir Plantation and Close-to-Natural Forest

by Lingyu Hou, Yongqiang Zhang, Zhichao Li, Guodong Shao, Liguo Song and Qiwu Sun

Forests 2021, 12(5), 632; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12050632 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2630

Abstract

With the continuous increase in plantation areas, the reduction of natural forest areas, and the unreasonable management of plantations by human beings, the service function of forest ecosystems has gradually reduced. Therefore, close-to-natural forestry has become important for the sustainable development of modern forestry. However, the differences in soil properties, enzyme activities, microbial diversities, and undergrowth vegetation species diversities have not been systematically explained for Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata). How do these indicators interact? The purpose of this paper was to study the difference in soil properties and biodiversity in different aged Chinese fir plantations and close-to-natural forests to explore their interactions and to provide direction for close-to-nature management. The results showed that the above indicators were significantly different in different aged Chinese fir plantations, soil pH, organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen, available phosphorus concentrations, and urease activities in close-to-natural forests were significantly higher than plantations. It is worth mentioning that the richness of undergrowth vegetation species diversity (especially shrubs) and soil microbial diversities (especially fungi) in the close-to-natural forests were obviously higher than those in plantations. The correlation analysis results showed that the diversity of shrub species with respect to soil properties presented a higher correlation than herb species, the diversity of fungi with respect to soil properties presented a higher correlation than that observed for bacteria, and the diversity of fungi were significantly correlated with the diversity of undergrowth vegetation species diversities, but the correlation between bacteria and undergrowth vegetation species diversities was not significant. Our results suggest that the above factors are fundamental factors for the transformation of Chinese fir plantations to close-to-natural forests. To realize close-to-natural forestry, we must change the tree structure, combine the difference of those factors in different aged plantations, restore undergrowth vegetation species diversity, and thus improve microbial diversity and increase decomposition, transformation, and improvement of soil properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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20 pages, 7381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modelling Shifts and Contraction of Seed Zones in Two Mexican Pine Species by Using Molecular Markers

by Sergio Leonel Simental-Rodriguez, Alberto Pérez-Luna, José Ciro Hernández-Díaz, Juan Pablo Jaramillo-Correa, Carlos A. López-Sánchez, Lluvia Flores-Rentería, Artemio Carrillo-Parra and Christian Wehenkel

Forests 2021, 12(5), 570; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12050570 - 01 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2271

Abstract

A seed zone or provenance region is an area within which plants can be moved with little risk of maladaptation because of the low environmental variation. Delineation of seed zones is of great importance for commercial plantations and reforestation and restoration programs. In this study, we used AFLP markers associated with environmental variation for locating and delimiting seed zones for two widespread and economically important Mexican pine species (Pinus arizonica Engelm. and P. durangensis Martínez), both based on recent climate conditions and under a predicted climate scenario for 2030 (Representative Concentration Pathway of ~4.5 Wm⁻²). We expected to observe: (i) associations between seed zones and local climate, soil and geographical factors, and (ii) a meaning latitudinal shift of seed zones, along with a contraction of species distributions for the period 1990–2030 in a northward direction. Some AFLP outliers were significantly associated with spring and winter precipitation, and with phosphorus concentration in the soil. According to the scenario for 2030, the estimated species and seed zone distributions will change both in size and position. Our modeling of seed zones could contribute to reducing the probabilities of maladaptation of future reforestations and plantations with the pine species studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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23 pages, 4352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evidence of Constrained Divergence and Conservatism in Climatic Niches of the Temperate Maples (Acer L.)

by Jake J. Grossman

Forests 2021, 12(5), 535; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12050535 - 26 Apr 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3259

Abstract

Research highlights: The availability of global distribution data and new, fossil-calibrated phylogenies has made it possible to compare the climatic niches of the temperate maple (Acer L.) taxa and assess phylogenetic and continental patterns in niche overlap. Background and Objectives: The maples have radiated from East Asia into two other temperate continental bioregions, North America and Eurasia (Europe and West Asia), over a roughly 60-million-year period. During this time, the Earth’s climate experienced pronounced cooling and drying, culminating in cyclic periods of widespread temperate glaciation in the Pliocene to Pleistocene. The objective of this study is to use newly available data to model the climatic niches of 60% of the temperate maples and assess patterns of niche divergence, constraint, and conservatism in the genus’s radiation out of East Asia. Materials and Methods: I assembled global occurrence data and associated climatic information for 71 maple taxa, including all species endemic to temperate North America and Eurasia and their closely related East Asian congeners. I constructed Maxent niche models for all taxa and compared the climatic niches of 184 taxa pairs and assessed phylogenetic signal in key niche axes for each taxon and in niche overlap at the continental and global scale. Results: Maxent models define a fundamental climatic niche for temperate maples and suggest that drought-intolerant taxa have been lost from the Eurasian maple flora, with little continental difference in temperature optima or breadth. Niche axes and niche overlap show minimal evidence of phylogenetic signal, suggesting adaptive evolution. Pairwise niche comparisons reveal infrequent niche overlap continentally and globally, even among sister pairs, with few taxa pairs sharing ecological niche space, providing evidence for constrained divergence within the genus’s fundamental climatic niche. Evidence of niche conservatism is limited to three somewhat geographically isolated regions of high maple diversity (western North America, the Caucasus, and Japan). Conclusions: Over 60 million years of hemispheric radiation on a cooling and drying planet, the maple genus experienced divergent, though constrained, climatic niche evolution. High climatic niche diversity across spatial and phylogenetic scales along with very limited niche overlap or conservatism suggests that the radiation of the genus has largely been one of adaptive diversification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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14 pages, 1640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Competition Restricts the Growth, Development, and Propagation of Carpinus tientaiensis: A Rare and Endangered Species in China

by Liangjin Yao, Yuanke Xu, Bo Jiang, Chuping Wu, Weigao Yuan, Jinru Zhu, Tingting Li and Zhigao Wang

Forests 2021, 12(4), 503; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/f12040503 - 17 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1877

Abstract

The protection and propagation of rare and endangered species are key to the preservation of their population development; however, due to the scarcity of individuals, the potential effects and status of rare and endangered species in the whole forest ecosystem are still poorly understood. Using data from a 60 × 140 m forest dynamic monitoring sample of the Carpinus tientaiensis (Betulaceae) species in Zhejiang of Southeast China. We assessed the population distribution and diameter at breast height (DBH) structure of the Carpinus tientaiensis species, which was a rare and endangered species, as well as intra- and interspecific correlation with other species. The results show that saplings (1 cm ≤ DBH < 5 cm) and juveniles (5 cm ≤ DBH < 10 cm) were more aggregated than larger individuals (DBH ≥ 20 cm) of Carpinus tientaiensis. The DBH size structure of all the trees shows an obvious inverted “J” distribution. With an increase in the DBH size category, the number of individuals gradually decreases. Due to the diffusion limitation, the spatial distribution patterns of all the tree individuals and roof geese in the sample land are increased at a small spatial scale, and as the spatial scale increases, the degree of aggregation decreases gradually. The relationship between different diameter stages of the population of Carpinus tientaiensis showed a consistent general trend. The spatial distribution of individuals with a large diameter on a small scale was significantly positively correlated (p < 0.001). With an increase in the scale, there was no significant correlation (p > 0.05) between individuals with a large diameter and individuals with a small diameter. There was no significant correlation (p > 0.05) between the population of Carpinus tientaiensis and other species in the sample, and the strong unidirectional competition of other species in the sample can be seen by the competition index. We found that interspecific competition restricts the growth and expansion of Carpinus tientaiensis, and it has adopted different ecological strategies to coexist with a population of common tree species occupying a similar living space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns of Tree Species Diversity and Forest Structure)

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