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Future Internet
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Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions
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Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions

A special issue of Future Internet (ISSN 1999-5903). This special issue belongs to the section "Internet of Things".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 46648

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ahad ZareRavasan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Corporate Economy, Faculty of Economics and Administration Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: information systems; blockchain; business analytics; big data; cryptocurrencies
Dr. Taha Mansouri

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford Manchester, Salford M5 4WT, UK
Interests: machine learning; deep learning; computer vision; complex systems modelling; explainable AI
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Michal Krčál

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Corporate Economy, Faculty of Economics and AdministrationMasaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: information systems; blockchain; knowledge management; business process management
Dr. Saeed Rouhani

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Management, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Interests: information systems; blockchain; business analytics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Blockchain is perceived as one of the most promising technologies, with a projected annual global spending of around US$9.7 billion by 2021. Blockchain is a distributed append-only time-stamped data structure which allows us to have a distributed peer-to-peer network where non-trusting members can verifiably interact with each other without the need for a trusted authority. Blockchain, through smart contracts, enhances transparency and trust and enables new ways of creating disrupted business models. Nevertheless, recent attention on Blockchain has merely focused on its applications in the financial sector. However, the impact of Blockchain technology goes beyond the financial industry.

Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the combination of Blockchain with other emerging and state-of-the-art technologies (such as artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things) to create business value. Despite these growing interests in Blockchain business applications, there are dozens of challenges for Blockchain’s wide adoption. These challenges are around scalability, interoperability, standards, privacy, security, governance, and consensus mechanisms that need to be addressed.

This Special Issue seeks original, unpublished papers presenting theoretical and applicative proposals in all Blockchain research areas, focusing more on Blockchain applications and challenges. Authors are encouraged to submit articles that include existing problems/challenges and suggestions of how they could be resolved and cover its revolutionary prospects and their applications and implications for real-life practices. Review/survey/technical papers are encouraged. Topic areas include, but are not limited to the following:

  • Blockchain as a disruptive technology to disrupt business models;
  • Blockchain Applications in real life (e.g., finance, supply change, healthcare, logistics, smart cities, advertising, social networking);
  • Exploiting the advantages of Blockchain and challenges to be addressed;
  • Blockchain ecosystem and the roles of key players (e.g., government, regulatory, startups, freelancers, investors, miners, and mining pools);
  • Successes and failures of emerging Blockchain initiatives;
  • Blockchain integration with other technologies (e.g., artificial intelligence, big data analytics, and the Internet of things, 5G, edge/fog/cloud technologies);
  • Blockchain architectures, protocols, algorithms, and consensus mechanisms;
  • Blockchain startups and how they are revolutionizing Blockchain applications.

Dr. Ahad ZareRavasan
Dr. Taha Mansouri
Dr. Michal Krčál
Dr. Saeed Rouhani
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Future Internet is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Blockchain
  • Crypto Currencies
  • Blockchain applications
  • Blockchain challenges
  • Distributed ledger technologies
  • Blockchain and Internet of Things
  • Blockchain and big data
  • Blockchain regulation
  • Smart contracts
  • Blockchain architectures.

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review, Other

2 pages, 172 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for the Special Issue on Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions
by Ahad ZareRavasan, Taha Mansouri, Michal Krčál and Saeed Rouhani
Future Internet 2022, 14(5), 155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi14050155 - 19 May 2022
Viewed by 1587
Abstract
Blockchain is believed to have the potential to digitally transform and disrupt industry sectors such as finance, supply chain, healthcare, marketing, and entertainment [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)

Research

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19 pages, 1222 KiB  
Article
SASLedger: A Secured, Accelerated Scalable Storage Solution for Distributed Ledger Systems
by Haoli Sun, Bingfeng Pi, Jun Sun, Takeshi Miyamae and Masanobu Morinaga
Future Internet 2021, 13(12), 310; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13120310 - 30 Nov 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2675
Abstract
Blockchain technology provides a “tamper-proof distributed ledger” for its users. Typically, to ensure the integrity and immutability of the transaction data, each node in a blockchain network retains a full copy of the ledger; however, this characteristic imposes an increasing storage burden upon [...] Read more.
Blockchain technology provides a “tamper-proof distributed ledger” for its users. Typically, to ensure the integrity and immutability of the transaction data, each node in a blockchain network retains a full copy of the ledger; however, this characteristic imposes an increasing storage burden upon each node with the accumulation of data. In this paper, an off-chain solution is introduced to relieve the storage burden of blockchain nodes while ensuring the integrity of the off-chain data. In our solution, an off-chain remote DB server stores the fully replicated data while the nodes only store the commitments of the data to verify whether the off-chain data are tampered with. To minimize the influence on performance, the nodes will store data locally at first and transfer it to the remote DB server when otherwise idle. Our solution also supports accessing all historical data for newly joined nodes through a snapshot mechanism. The solution is implemented based on the Hyperledger Fabric (HLF). Experiments show that our solution reduces the block data for blockchain nodes by 93.3% compared to the original HLF and that our advanced solution enhances the TPS by 9.6% compared to our primary solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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20 pages, 2259 KiB  
Article
Distributed Hybrid Double-Spending Attack Prevention Mechanism for Proof-of-Work and Proof-of-Stake Blockchain Consensuses
by Nur Arifin Akbar, Amgad Muneer, Narmine ElHakim and Suliman Mohamed Fati
Future Internet 2021, 13(11), 285; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13110285 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6506
Abstract
Blockchain technology is a sustainable technology that offers a high level of security for many industrial applications. Blockchain has numerous benefits, such as decentralisation, immutability and tamper-proofing. Blockchain is composed of two processes, namely, mining (the process of adding a new block or [...] Read more.
Blockchain technology is a sustainable technology that offers a high level of security for many industrial applications. Blockchain has numerous benefits, such as decentralisation, immutability and tamper-proofing. Blockchain is composed of two processes, namely, mining (the process of adding a new block or transaction to the global public ledger created by the previous block) and validation (the process of validating the new block added). Several consensus protocols have been introduced to validate blockchain transactions, Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS), which are crucial to cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin. However, these consensus protocols are vulnerable to double-spending attacks. Amongst these attacks, the 51% attack is the most prominent because it involves forking a blockchain to conduct double spending. Many attempts have been made to solve this issue, and examples include delayed proof-of-work (PoW) and several Byzantine fault tolerance mechanisms. These attempts, however, suffer from delay issues and unsorted block sequences. This study proposes a hybrid algorithm that combines PoS and PoW mechanisms to provide a fair mining reward to the miner/validator by conducting forking to combine PoW and PoS consensuses. As demonstrated by the experimental results, the proposed algorithm can reduce the possibility of intruders performing double mining because it requires achieving 100% dominance in the network, which is impossible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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24 pages, 616 KiB  
Article
EconLedger: A Proof-of-ENF Consensus Based Lightweight Distributed Ledger for IoVT Networks
by Ronghua Xu, Deeraj Nagothu and Yu Chen
Future Internet 2021, 13(10), 248; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13100248 - 24 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2279
Abstract
The rapid advancement in artificial intelligence (AI) and wide deployment of Internet of Video Things (IoVT) enable situation awareness (SAW). The robustness and security of IoVT systems are essential for a sustainable urban environment. While blockchain technology has shown great potential in enabling [...] Read more.
The rapid advancement in artificial intelligence (AI) and wide deployment of Internet of Video Things (IoVT) enable situation awareness (SAW). The robustness and security of IoVT systems are essential for a sustainable urban environment. While blockchain technology has shown great potential in enabling trust-free and decentralized security mechanisms, directly embedding cryptocurrency oriented blockchain schemes into resource-constrained Internet of Video Things (IoVT) networks at the edge is not feasible. By leveraging Electrical Network Frequency (ENF) signals extracted from multimedia recordings as region-of-recording proofs, this paper proposes EconLedger, an ENF-based consensus mechanism that enables secure and lightweight distributed ledgers for small-scale IoVT edge networks. The proposed consensus mechanism relies on a novel Proof-of-ENF (PoENF) algorithm where a validator is qualified to generate a new block if and only if a proper ENF-containing multimedia signal proof is produced within the current round. The decentralized database (DDB) is adopted in order to guarantee efficiency and resilience of raw ENF proofs on the off-chain storage. A proof-of-concept prototype is developed and tested in a physical IoVT network environment. The experimental results validated the feasibility of the proposed EconLedger to provide a trust-free and partially decentralized security infrastructure for IoVT edge networks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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26 pages, 8492 KiB  
Article
Toward Blockchain-Enabled Supply Chain Anti-Counterfeiting and Traceability
by Neo C. K. Yiu
Future Internet 2021, 13(4), 86; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13040086 - 29 Mar 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8060
Abstract
Existing product anti-counterfeiting and traceability solutions across today’s internationally spanning supply chain networks are indeed developed and implemented with centralized system architecture relying on centralized authorities or intermediaries. Vulnerabilities of centralized product anti-counterfeiting solutions could possibly lead to system failure or susceptibility of [...] Read more.
Existing product anti-counterfeiting and traceability solutions across today’s internationally spanning supply chain networks are indeed developed and implemented with centralized system architecture relying on centralized authorities or intermediaries. Vulnerabilities of centralized product anti-counterfeiting solutions could possibly lead to system failure or susceptibility of malicious modifications performed on product records or various potential attacks to the system components by dishonest participant nodes traversing along the supply chain. Blockchain technology has progressed from simply being a use case of immutable ledger for cryptocurrency transactions, to a programmable interactive environment of developing decentralized and reliable applications addressing different use cases globally. Key areas of decentralization, fundamental system requirements, and feasible mechanisms of developing decentralized product anti-counterfeiting and traceability ecosystems utilizing blockchain technology are identified in this research, via a series of security analyses performed against solutions currently implemented in supply chain industry with centralized architecture. The decentralized solution will be a secure and immutable scientific data provenance tracking and management platform where provenance records, providing compelling properties on data integrity of luxurious goods, are recorded and verified automatically across the supply chain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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Review

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19 pages, 2174 KiB  
Review
Blockchain Technology Applied in IoV Demand Response Management: A Systematic Literature Review
by Evgenia Kapassa and Marinos Themistocleous
Future Internet 2022, 14(5), 136; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi14050136 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3814
Abstract
Energy management in the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is becoming more prevalent as the usage of distributed Electric Vehicles (EV) grows. As a result, Demand Response (DR) management has been introduced to achieve efficient energy management in IoV. Through DR management, EV drivers [...] Read more.
Energy management in the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) is becoming more prevalent as the usage of distributed Electric Vehicles (EV) grows. As a result, Demand Response (DR) management has been introduced to achieve efficient energy management in IoV. Through DR management, EV drivers are allowed to adjust their energy consumption and generation based on a variety of parameters, such as cost, driving patterns and driving routes. Nonetheless, research in IoV DR management is still in its early stages, and the implementation of DR schemes faces a number of significant hurdles. Blockchain is used to solve some of them (e.g., incentivization, privacy and security issues, lack of interoperability and high mobility). For instance, blockchain enables the introduction of safe, reliable and decentralized Peer-to-Peer (P2P) energy trading. The combination of blockchain and IoV is a new promising approach to further improve/overcome the aforementioned limitations. However, there is limited literature in Demand Response Management (DRM) schemes designed for IoV. Therefore, there is a need for a systematic literature review (SLR) to collect and critically analyze the existing relevant literature, in an attempt to highlight open issues. Thus, in this article, we conduct a SLR, investigating how blockchain technology assists the area of DRM in IoV. We contribute to the body of knowledge by offering a set of observations and research challenges on blockchain-based DRM in IoV. In doing so, we allow other researchers to focus their work on them, and further contribute to this area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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16 pages, 2948 KiB  
Review
Blockchain Applications in Agribusiness: A Systematic Review
by Geneci da Silva Ribeiro Rocha, Letícia de Oliveira and Edson Talamini
Future Internet 2021, 13(4), 95; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13040095 - 08 Apr 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7010
Abstract
Blockchain is a technology that can be applied in different sectors to solve various problems. As a complex system, agribusiness presents many possibilities to take advantage of blockchain technology. The main goal of this paper is to identify the purposes for which blockchain [...] Read more.
Blockchain is a technology that can be applied in different sectors to solve various problems. As a complex system, agribusiness presents many possibilities to take advantage of blockchain technology. The main goal of this paper is to identify the purposes for which blockchain has been applied in the agribusiness sector, for which a PRISMA-based systematic review was carried out. The scientific literature corpus was accessed and selected from Elsevier’s Scopus and ISI of Knowledge’s Web of Science (WoS) platforms, using the PRISMA protocol procedures. Seventy-one articles were selected for analysis. Blockchain application in agribusiness is a novel topic, with the first publication dating from 2016. The technological development prevails more than blockchain applications since it has been addressed mainly in the Computer Sciences and Engineering. Blockchain applications for agribusiness management of financial, energy, logistical, environmental, agricultural, livestock, and industrial purposes have been reported in the literature. The findings suggest that blockchain brings many benefits when used in agribusiness supply chains. We concluded that the research on blockchain applications in agribusiness is only at an early stage, as many prototypes are being developed and tested in the laboratory. In the near future, blockchain will be increasingly applied across all economic sectors, including agribusiness, promoting greater reliability and agility in information with a reduced cost. Several gaps for future studies were observed, with significant value for science, industry, and society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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32 pages, 2102 KiB  
Review
Distributed Ledger Technology Review and Decentralized Applications Development Guidelines
by Claudia Antal, Tudor Cioara, Ionut Anghel, Marcel Antal and Ioan Salomie
Future Internet 2021, 13(3), 62; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13030062 - 27 Feb 2021
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 9268
Abstract
The Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) provides an infrastructure for developing decentralized applications with no central authority for registering, sharing, and synchronizing transactions on digital assets. In the last years, it has drawn high interest from the academic community, technology developers, and startups mostly [...] Read more.
The Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) provides an infrastructure for developing decentralized applications with no central authority for registering, sharing, and synchronizing transactions on digital assets. In the last years, it has drawn high interest from the academic community, technology developers, and startups mostly by the advent of its most popular type, blockchain technology. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive overview of DLT analyzing the challenges, provided solutions or alternatives, and their usage for developing decentralized applications. We define a three-tier based architecture for DLT applications to systematically classify the technology solutions described in over 100 papers and startup initiatives. Protocol and Network Tier contains solutions for digital assets registration, transactions, data structure, and privacy and business rules implementation and the creation of peer-to-peer networks, ledger replication, and consensus-based state validation. Scalability and Interoperability Tier solutions address the scalability and interoperability issues with a focus on blockchain technology, where they manifest most often, slowing down its large-scale adoption. The paper closes with a discussion on challenges and opportunities for developing decentralized applications by providing a multi-step guideline for decentralizing the design and implementation of traditional systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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Other

15 pages, 1089 KiB  
Perspective
The Machine-to-Everything (M2X) Economy: Business Enactments, Collaborations, and e-Governance
by Benjamin Leiding, Priyanka Sharma and Alexander Norta
Future Internet 2021, 13(12), 319; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/fi13120319 - 19 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3070
Abstract
Nowadays, business enactments almost exclusively focus on human-to-human business transactions. However, the ubiquitousness of smart devices enables business enactments among autonomously acting machines, thereby providing the foundation for the machine-driven Machine-to-Everything (M2X) Economy. Human-to-human business is governed by enforceable contracts either in the [...] Read more.
Nowadays, business enactments almost exclusively focus on human-to-human business transactions. However, the ubiquitousness of smart devices enables business enactments among autonomously acting machines, thereby providing the foundation for the machine-driven Machine-to-Everything (M2X) Economy. Human-to-human business is governed by enforceable contracts either in the form of oral, or written agreements. Still, a machine-driven ecosystem requires a digital equivalent that is accessible to all stakeholders. Additionally, an electronic contract platform enables fact-tracking, non-repudiation, auditability and tamper-resistant storage of information in a distributed multi-stakeholder setting. A suitable approach for M2X enactments are electronic smart contracts that allow to govern business transactions using a computerized transaction protocol such as a blockchain. In this position paper, we argue in favor of an open, decentralized and distributed smart contract-based M2X Economy that supports the corresponding multi-stakeholder ecosystem and facilitates M2X value exchange, collaborations, and business enactments. Finally, it allows for a distributed e-governance model that fosters open platforms and interoperability. Thus, serving as a foundation for the ubiquitous M2X Economy and its ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blockchain: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions)
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