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Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public...
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Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health

A special issue of Healthcare (ISSN 2227-9032). This special issue belongs to the section "Coronaviruses (CoV) and COVID-19 Pandemic".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 188383

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Emanuele Amodio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Infant Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties (PROMISE), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
Interests: public health; epidemiology; infectious diseases; vaccination; vaccine effectiveness; communicable diseases
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Palmira Immordino

E-Mail
Co-Guest Editor
Section of Hygiene, Department of Health Promotion Sciences, Maternal and Infantile Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties “G. D’Alessandro”, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy
Interests: public health; infectious diseases; tropical medicine, refugees and migrants health, vaccine-preventable diseases; health diplomacy; health policies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

At the end of December 2019, Chinese authorities reported the spread of a novel coronavirus (named 2019-nCoV before, newly defined as SARS-CoV-2) responsible for cases of acute respiratory syndrome in the Wuhan municipality. In a few weeks, the spread of this new strain of coronavirus rapidly evolved, affecting other parts of China and determining cases outside the country. Further global diffusion can be not excluded, and it is expected that international exportation of cases may occur worldwide. To reduce the risk of a possible epidemic, the World Health Organization has declared the current outbreak a global public health emergency and invites all countries to be prepared for containment, including through active surveillance and case management.

Unfortunately, to date there is still a limited knowledge about the characteristics of the virus, how it spreads between people, how severe are the resulting infections, and how to treat them. To answer these questions, the scientific international community is committed to rapidly covering these gaps and sharing emerging information on this topic. In particular, healthcare professionals are called to put in place strong measures to detect disease early, isolate and treat cases, trace contacts, and prevent and reduce the spread of the infection.

According to the previously reported considerations, in this Special Issue we particularly welcome articles and commentaries providing new insights into general epidemiology of this novel virus, disease prevention and control strategies, risk management and communication, evaluation of the impact of public health interventions, and innovative researches for developing necessary pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical treatments.

Dr. Emanuele Amodio
Dr. Palmira Immordino
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Healthcare is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Novel coronavirus
  • Epidemiology
  • Public health
  • Disease prevention
  • Control strategies
  • Risk management and communication
  • Innovative researches

Published Papers (34 papers)

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Editorial

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7 pages, 608 KiB  
Editorial
Outbreak of Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): First Evidences From International Scientific Literature and Pending Questions
by Emanuele Amodio, Francesco Vitale, Livia Cimino, Alessandra Casuccio and Fabio Tramuto
Healthcare 2020, 8(1), 51; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8010051 - 27 Feb 2020
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 12506
Abstract
On 31 December, 2019, a cluster of 27 pneumonia cases of unknown etiology was reported by Chinese health authorities in Wuhan City (China) [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review, Other

11 pages, 1835 KiB  
Article
Same Pandemic Yet Different COVID-19 Vaccination Roll-Out Rates in Two Small European Islands: A Comparison between Cyprus and Malta
by Sarah Cuschieri, Amalia Hatziyianni, Marios Kantaris, Antonis Kontemeniotis, Mamas Theodorou and Elena Pallari
Healthcare 2022, 10(2), 222; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare10020222 - 24 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2332
Abstract
A mass vaccination strategy is estimated to be the long-term solution to control COVID-19. Different European countries have committed to vaccination strategies with variable population inoculation rates. We sought to investigate the extent to which the COVID-19 vaccination strategies, inoculation rate, and COVID-19 [...] Read more.
A mass vaccination strategy is estimated to be the long-term solution to control COVID-19. Different European countries have committed to vaccination strategies with variable population inoculation rates. We sought to investigate the extent to which the COVID-19 vaccination strategies, inoculation rate, and COVID-19 outcome differ between Cyprus and Malta. Data were obtained from the Ministry of Health websites and COVID-19 dashboards, while vaccination data were obtained from the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control until mid-June, 2021. Comparative assessments were performed between the two countries using Microsoft® Excel for Mac, Version 16.54. Both islands took part in the European Union’s advanced purchase agreement and received their first batch of vaccines on 27 December 2020. The positivity rate and mortality between December and June differs between the two countries (average positivity rate Cyprus 1.34, Malta 3.37 p ≤ 0.01; average mortality Cyprus 7.29, Malta 9.68 p ≤ 0.01). Both the positivity rate and mortality for Cyprus declined due to strict public health measures and vaccination roll-out in early January (positivity rate by 95% and mortality by 58%). In contrast, for Malta, there was a sharp increase (64% p ≤ 0.01) with almost no public health restrictions in place and soaring cases during the Christmas and Carnival period until March, when lockdown measures were re-introduced. A distinctive difference between Cyprus and Malta in positivity rate (14 per 100,000 population; p ≤ 0.01) can also be observed between January and mid-April 2021. However, from April onwards it is evident that the positivity rate and mortality decline (positivity rate Cyprus by 82%, Malta by 95%; mortality Cyprus by 90%, Malta by 95%, p ≤ 0.01, respectively) in both countries as the vaccination roll-outs progressed, covering about 58.93% of the Maltese population, while Cyprus had fully inoculated about 38.03% of its population. The vaccine strategies and vaccination rates were similar for both countries; yet Malta had the fastest vaccine roll-out. Reluctancy to get vaccinated, significant differences in the vaccination appointment scheduling system, and the freedom of vaccination choice for the citizens in Cyprus may have contributed to a delayed vaccination roll-out. These potential contributing factors should be acknowledged and considered for future vaccination programs and potential COVID-19 boosters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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32 pages, 5830 KiB  
Article
Empirical Study on Classifiers for Earlier Prediction of COVID-19 Infection Cure and Death Rate in the Indian States
by Pratiyush Guleria, Shakeel Ahmed, Abdulaziz Alhumam and Parvathaneni Naga Srinivasu
Healthcare 2022, 10(1), 85; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare10010085 - 02 Jan 2022
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 2666
Abstract
Machine Learning methods can play a key role in predicting the spread of respiratory infection with the help of predictive analytics. Machine Learning techniques help mine data to better estimate and predict the COVID-19 infection status. A Fine-tuned Ensemble Classification approach for predicting [...] Read more.
Machine Learning methods can play a key role in predicting the spread of respiratory infection with the help of predictive analytics. Machine Learning techniques help mine data to better estimate and predict the COVID-19 infection status. A Fine-tuned Ensemble Classification approach for predicting the death and cure rates of patients from infection using Machine Learning techniques has been proposed for different states of India. The proposed classification model is applied to the recent COVID-19 dataset for India, and a performance evaluation of various state-of-the-art classifiers to the proposed model is performed. The classifiers forecasted the patients’ infection status in different regions to better plan resources and response care systems. The appropriate classification of the output class based on the extracted input features is essential to achieve accurate results of classifiers. The experimental outcome exhibits that the proposed Hybrid Model reached a maximum F1-score of 94% compared to Ensembles and other classifiers like Support Vector Machine, Decision Trees, and Gaussian Naïve Bayes on a dataset of 5004 instances through 10-fold cross-validation for predicting the right class. The feasibility of automated prediction for COVID-19 infection cure and death rates in the Indian states was demonstrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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11 pages, 1507 KiB  
Article
Dynamics of the Third Wave of COVID-19 from the Perspective of the Emergency Department in a Large Regional Hospital—Single Center Observational Study
by Tomasz Kłosiewicz, Weronika Szkudlarek, Magdalena Węglewska, Patryk Konieczka, Radosław Zalewski, Roland Podlewski, Anna Sowińska and Mateusz Puślecki
Healthcare 2022, 10(1), 18; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare10010018 - 23 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2076
Abstract
Background: The outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused many significant social and economic changes. The consecutive waves of the epidemic in various countries have had dissimilar courses depending on the methods used to combat it. The aim of this [...] Read more.
Background: The outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused many significant social and economic changes. The consecutive waves of the epidemic in various countries have had dissimilar courses depending on the methods used to combat it. The aim of this study was to determine the dynamics of the third wave of COVID-19 from the perspective of emergency departments (ED). Methods: This was a retrospective review of medical records from ED. The authors have identified the most frequent symptoms. Prognostic factors have been chosen—prognostic scales, length of stay (LOS)—and a number of resources required have been calculated. Results: As the time passed, there were fewer patients and they presented mild symptoms. A statistically significant difference was observed in the median of blood oxygenation measurement (p = 0.00009), CRP level (p = 0.0016), and admission rate. Patients admitted to the hospital required more resources at ED. LOS was shorter in patients discharged home (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: The blood oxygen saturation (SPO2) and CPR levels can be helpful in decision-making regarding medical treatment. The fast-track for patients in good clinical condition may shorten the duration of stay in ED, and reduce the number of required resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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9 pages, 242 KiB  
Article
Physicians’ Experience with COVID-19 Vaccination: A Survey Study
by Alina Dima, Ciprian Jurcut, Daniel Vasile Balaban, Valeriu Gheorghita, Ruxandra Jurcut, Augustin Catalin Dima and Mariana Jinga
Healthcare 2021, 9(12), 1746; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9121746 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2512
Abstract
Background: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy remains high in the general population and is the main determinant of low vaccination rates and of the fourth pandemic wave severity in Romania. Additional information is needed to raise awareness over vaccine efficiency and the safety profile. Objective: [...] Read more.
Background: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy remains high in the general population and is the main determinant of low vaccination rates and of the fourth pandemic wave severity in Romania. Additional information is needed to raise awareness over vaccine efficiency and the safety profile. Objective: To assess self-reported experience related to COVID-19 vaccination in Romanian physicians. Design, Setting, and Participants: A cross-sectional, self-administered questionnaire-based survey, distributed online in the period 24 March to 24 May 2021. The survey included 30 cascade questions with skip logic filters. All physicians included filled in the questionnaire voluntarily and anonymously. Not all respondents filled in all questions. Main outcome and measure: Primary outcomes addressed were related to the COVID-19 vaccine safety profile. Results: 407/467 (87.15%) of the respondents’ physicians were fully vaccinated, mostly with the Pfizer—BioNTech (Comirnaty)—BNT162b2 vaccine, with the peak of immunization in January 2021, with almost four-fifths of the study participants. Regarding COVID-19, almost 20% physicians had the infection and one declared COVID-19 re-infection. A number of 48/420 (11.42%) and 47/419 (11.22%) of the vaccinated physicians did not report any side effects after the first or second vaccine dose. However, most of the side effects reported were minor. Only 50/360 (13.88%) physicians reported the vaccine side effects on the dedicated online national platform. Approximately 40% respondents checked the anti-spike SARS-CoV2 antibodies’ titer after complete vaccination, of which two cases reported indeterminate levels. Lower anti-spike SARS-CoV2 antibodies’ titer of 100–1000 times the laboratory limit was more frequent in naive physicians (36.95% versus 14.28%, p = 0.012), moderate titers were similar, while very high levels, more than 10,000 times laboratory limit, were more frequent in physicians with previous COVID-19 infection (2.17% versus 42.85%, p < 0.001). Conclusions and relevance: In this cross-sectional survey study on the COVID-19 vaccination among Romanian physicians, we describe a safety vaccination profile among Romanian physicians. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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19 pages, 3933 KiB  
Article
COVID-19 Delta Variant: Perceptions, Worries, and Vaccine-Booster Acceptability among Healthcare Workers
by Khalid Alhasan, Fadi Aljamaan, Mohamad-Hani Temsah, Fatimah Alshahrani, Rolan Bassrawi, Ali Alhaboob, Rasha Assiri, Shuliweeh Alenezi, Ali Alaraj, Reham I. Alhomoudi, Mohammed A. Batais, Lama Al-Eyadhy, Rabih Halwani, Naif AbdulMajeed, Ahmed Al-Jedai, Abdulrahman Senjab, Ziad A. Memish, Sarah Al-Subaie, Mazin Barry and Jaffar A. Al-Tawfiq
Healthcare 2021, 9(11), 1566; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9111566 - 17 Nov 2021
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5231
Abstract
Background: As the COVID-19 Delta variant has spread across the globe, healthcare workers’ (HCWs) knowledge, worries, and vaccine booster acceptance should be assessed. Methods: Online questionnaires aimed at HCWs in Saudi Arabia were distributed between 9 and 12 August 2021, aiming to evaluate [...] Read more.
Background: As the COVID-19 Delta variant has spread across the globe, healthcare workers’ (HCWs) knowledge, worries, and vaccine booster acceptance should be assessed. Methods: Online questionnaires aimed at HCWs in Saudi Arabia were distributed between 9 and 12 August 2021, aiming to evaluate HCWs’ perceptions and worries about the Delta variant as well as their feelings about receiving a booster-vaccine. Results: A total of 1279 HCWs participated, with 51.1% being physicians and 41.7% nurses. 92.5% were aware of the emergence of the Delta variant. Still, only 28.7% were found to have sufficient knowledge of the variant, and their level of worry about it was higher than their level of worry about the Alpha variant (2.32/5 versus 1.79/5). The main information sources cited by the participants were social media (50.5%), while 30.5% used scientific journals. Overall, 55.3% were willing to receive a vaccine booster, while one third would have preferred to receive a new mRNA vaccine specifically developed for the Delta variant. Factors associated with vaccine booster acceptance were receiving both vaccination doses (p = 0.008), believing that the Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 vaccine is effective against variants (p < 0.001), and agreement that mixing/matching vaccines is effective against variants (p < 0.001). Conclusions: A high percentage of HCWs were aware of the Delta variant, but only a small fraction had decent quality of knowledge about it. The participants exhibited high worry levels and showed a modest acceptance of receiving a vaccine booster dose. These results should encourage public health officials to scale up educational efforts to disseminate reliable information about the different variants and provide recommendations about receiving a vaccine booster. Further research on methods to alleviate HCWs’ worries about emerging variants is warranted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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10 pages, 388 KiB  
Article
Factors Affecting COVID-19 Vaccination among the General Population in Saudi Arabia
by Khalid Al-Mansour, Saad Alyahya, Fouad AbuGazalah and Khaled Alabdulkareem
Healthcare 2021, 9(9), 1218; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9091218 - 16 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3302
Abstract
Vaccine refusal or hesitancy is one of the significant issues that can have an adverse impact on people’s health and their countries’ economy. Additionally, vaccine acceptance or refusal could have a decisive role in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to investigate [...] Read more.
Vaccine refusal or hesitancy is one of the significant issues that can have an adverse impact on people’s health and their countries’ economy. Additionally, vaccine acceptance or refusal could have a decisive role in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aims to investigate the factors affecting COVID-19 vaccine refusal and hesitancy among the general population in Saudi Arabia. The method is a cross-sectional survey using an online questionnaire, and data were collected from 1935 participants between 18 February 2021 and 1 April 2021. Out of 1935 participants aged ≥18 years and residing in Saudi Arabia, 46.9% reported their intention to receive the COVID-19 vaccine, 22.4% had received the vaccine, 9.5% did not intend to receive the vaccine, and 21.2% had not made their decision. In the multinomial logistic regression models, vaccine refusal was associated with age (OR: 0.961), nationality (OR: 0.182), monthly income of more than SAR 18,000 (OR: 2.325), chronic diseases (OR: 0.521), knowledge about the vaccine (OR: 0.937), and concerns about the vaccine (OR: 1.5). The hesitancy was associated with age (OR: 0.977), nationality (OR: 0.231), monthly income between SAR 6000 to 12,000 (OR: 0.607), chronic diseases (OR: 0.640), knowledge about the vaccine (OR: 0.907), and concerns about the vaccine (OR: 1.3). The main concerns about the vaccine were “COVID-19 vaccines are not tested enough on people”, “drug companies are interested in COVID-19 vaccine sales only”, and “COVID-19 vaccines have serious adverse effects”. Awareness programs and vaccination campaigns should consider people’s concerns and correct their misinformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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12 pages, 1919 KiB  
Article
Updated Clinical Evaluation of the CLUNGENE® Rapid COVID-19 Antibody Test
by Christopher C. Lamb, Fadi Haddad, Christopher Owens, Alfredo Lopez-Yunez, Marion Carroll and Jordan Moncrieffe
Healthcare 2021, 9(9), 1124; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9091124 - 30 Aug 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8918
Abstract
Background: COVID-19 antibody testing has been shown to be predictive of prior COVID-19 infection and an effective testing tool. The CLUNGENE® SARS-COV-2 VIRUS (COVID-19) IgG/IgM Rapid Test Cassette was evaluated for its utility to aide healthcare professionals. Method: Two studies were performed [...] Read more.
Background: COVID-19 antibody testing has been shown to be predictive of prior COVID-19 infection and an effective testing tool. The CLUNGENE® SARS-COV-2 VIRUS (COVID-19) IgG/IgM Rapid Test Cassette was evaluated for its utility to aide healthcare professionals. Method: Two studies were performed by using the CLUNGENE® Rapid Test. (1) An expanded Point-of-Care (POC) study at two clinical sites was conducted to evaluate 99 clinical subjects: 62 positive subjects and 37 negative subjects were compared to RT-PCR, PPA, and NPA (95% CI). Sensitivity was calculated from blood-collection time following symptom onset. (2) A cross-reactivity study was performed to determine the potential for false-positive results from other common infections. Results: The specificity of subjects with confirmed negative COVID-19 by RT-PCR was 100% (95% CI, 88.4–100.0%). The sensitivity of subjects with confirmed positive COVID-19 by RT-PCR was 96.77% (95% CI, 88.98–99.11%). In the cross-reactivity study, there were no false-positive results due to past infections or vaccinations unrelated to the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Conclusion: There is a need for a rapid, user-friendly, and inexpensive on-site monitoring system for diagnosis. The CLUNGENE® Rapid Test is a useful diagnostic test that provides results within 15 min, without high-complexity laboratory instrumentation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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13 pages, 6111 KiB  
Article
Combating the Infodemic: A Chinese Infodemic Dataset for Misinformation Identification
by Jia Luo, Rui Xue, Jinglu Hu and Didier El Baz
Healthcare 2021, 9(9), 1094; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9091094 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3013
Abstract
Misinformation posted on social media during COVID-19 is one main example of infodemic data. This phenomenon was prominent in China when COVID-19 happened at the beginning. While a lot of data can be collected from various social media platforms, publicly available infodemic detection [...] Read more.
Misinformation posted on social media during COVID-19 is one main example of infodemic data. This phenomenon was prominent in China when COVID-19 happened at the beginning. While a lot of data can be collected from various social media platforms, publicly available infodemic detection data remains rare and is not easy to construct manually. Therefore, instead of developing techniques for infodemic detection, this paper aims at constructing a Chinese infodemic dataset, “infodemic 2019”, by collecting widely spread Chinese infodemic during the COVID-19 outbreak. Each record is labeled as true, false or questionable. After a four-time adjustment, the original imbalanced dataset is converted into a balanced dataset by exploring the properties of the collected records. The final labels achieve high intercoder reliability with healthcare workers’ annotations and the high-frequency words show a strong relationship between the proposed dataset and pandemic diseases. Finally, numerical experiments are carried out with RNN, CNN and fastText. All of them achieve reasonable performance and present baselines for future works. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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14 pages, 685 KiB  
Article
Clinical Factors Associated with COVID-19 Severity in Mexican Patients: Cross-Sectional Analysis from a Multicentric Hospital Study
by Joel Monárrez-Espino, Carolina Ivette Zubía-Nevárez, Lorena Reyes-Silva, Juan Pablo Castillo-Palencia, Julio Enrique Castañeda-Delgado, Ana Sofía Herrera van-Oostdam and Yamilé López-Hernández
Healthcare 2021, 9(7), 895; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9070895 - 15 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1973
Abstract
(1) Background: Latin America has been harshly hit by SARS-CoV-2, but reporting from this region is still incomplete. This study aimed at identifying and comparing clinical characteristics of patients with COVID-19 at different stages of disease severity. (2) Methods: Cross-sectional multicentric study. Individuals [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Latin America has been harshly hit by SARS-CoV-2, but reporting from this region is still incomplete. This study aimed at identifying and comparing clinical characteristics of patients with COVID-19 at different stages of disease severity. (2) Methods: Cross-sectional multicentric study. Individuals with nasopharyngeal PCR were categorized into four groups: (1) negative, (2) positive, not hospitalized, (3) positive, hospitalized with/without supplementary oxygen, and (4) positive, intubated. Clinical and laboratory data were compared, using group 1 as the reference. Multivariate multinomial logistic regression was used to compare adjusted odds ratios. (3) Results: Nine variables remained in the model, explaining 76% of the variability. Men had increased odds, from 1.90 (95%CI 0.87–4.15) in the comparison of 2 vs. 1, to 3.66 (1.12–11.9) in 4 vs. 1. Diabetes and obesity were strong predictors. For diabetes, the odds for groups 2, 3, and 4 were 1.56 (0.29–8.16), 12.8 (2.50–65.8), and 16.1 (2.87–90.2); for obesity, these were 0.79 (0.31–2.05), 3.38 (1.04–10.9), and 4.10 (1.16–14.4), respectively. Fever, myalgia/arthralgia, cough, dyspnea, and neutrophilia were associated with the more severe COVID-19 group. Anosmia/dysgeusia were more likely to occur in group 2 (25.5; 2.51–259). (4) Conclusion: The results point to relevant differences in clinical and laboratory features of COVID-19 by level of severity that can be used in medical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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6 pages, 200 KiB  
Article
Use of Immunochromatographic SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Testing in Eight Long-Term Care Facilities for the Elderly
by Martina Ifko and Miha Skvarc
Healthcare 2021, 9(7), 868; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9070868 - 09 Jul 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3298
Abstract
The clinical validation of the NADAL COVID-19 antigen test (Nal von Minden, Moers, Germany) started in eight Slovenian long-term health care facilities in October 2020. The purpose of clinical validation is to implement the test into the everyday working process in long-term care [...] Read more.
The clinical validation of the NADAL COVID-19 antigen test (Nal von Minden, Moers, Germany) started in eight Slovenian long-term health care facilities in October 2020. The purpose of clinical validation is to implement the test into the everyday working process in long-term care (LTC) facilities and demonstrate how it can be used to mitigate the spread of the virus in these environments. The facilities compared the results of antigen tests to the results obtained using Cobas 6800 SARS-CoV-2 real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (Roche, USA). Sensitivity (86.96%, 95% CI: 66.41–97.23%) and specificity (88.24%, 95% CI: 80.35–93.77%) of the NADAL COVID-19 antigen test were good. Rapid antigen testing served well for early detection of infection and helped to prevent and control spread of the SARS Cov2 in six out of eight LTCs. Moreover, mini-outbreaks were quickly resolved in all six LTCs. Locally validated immunochromatographic SARS-CoV-2 antigen testing can be used to contain the spread of the virus in LTCs. Antigen tests also deliver accurate information very quickly if used early with a low threshold. The NADAL COVID-19 antigen test proved to be a good screening tool to detect SARS-COV-2 in LTCs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
8 pages, 236 KiB  
Article
Socio-Demographic Factors Involved in a Low-Incidence Phase of SARS-CoV-2 Spread in Sicily, Italy
by Emanuele Amodio, Michele Battisti, Carmelo Massimo Maida, Maurizio Zarcone, Alessandra Casuccio and Francesco Vitale
Healthcare 2021, 9(7), 867; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9070867 - 09 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1256
Abstract
Background: The present study analysed SARS-CoV-2 cases observed in Sicily and investigated social determinants that could have an impact on the virus spread. Methods: SARS-CoV-2 cases observed among Sicilian residents between the 1 February 2020 and 15 October 2020 have been included in [...] Read more.
Background: The present study analysed SARS-CoV-2 cases observed in Sicily and investigated social determinants that could have an impact on the virus spread. Methods: SARS-CoV-2 cases observed among Sicilian residents between the 1 February 2020 and 15 October 2020 have been included in the analyses. Age, sex, date of infection detection, residency, clinical outcomes, and exposure route have been evaluated. Each case has been linked to the census section of residency and its socio-demographic data. Results: A total of 10,114 patients (202.3 cases per 100,000 residents; 95% CI = 198.4–206.2) were analysed: 45.4% were asymptomatic and 3.62% were deceased during follow-up. Asymptomatic or mild cases were more frequent among young groups. A multivariable analysis found a reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 cases was found in census sections with higher male prevalence (adj-OR = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.99–0.99; p < 0.001) and presence of immigrants (adj-OR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.86–0.92; p < 0.001). Proportion of residents aged <15 years, residents with a university degree, residents with secondary education, extra-urban mobility, presence of home for rent, and presence of more than five homes per building were found to increase the risk of SARS-CoV-2 incidence. Conclusion: Routinely collected socio-demographic data can be predictors of SARS-CoV-2 risk infection and they may have a role in mapping high risk micro-areas for virus transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
17 pages, 589 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Factors Associated with Psychological Problems of Healthcare Workforce in Vietnam: Findings from COVID-19 Hotspots in the National Second Wave
by Nguyen Quang Tuan, Nguyen Doan Phuong, Dao Xuan Co, Do Ngoc Son, Luong Quoc Chinh, Nguyen Huu Dung, Pham The Thach, Nguyen Quoc Thai, Truong Anh Thu, Nguyen Anh Tuan, Bui Van San, Vu Son Tung, Ngo Van An, Do Nam Khanh, Vo Hoang Long, Nguyen Tai, To Muoi, Nguyen Dai Vinh, Nguyen Trong Thien, Le Duc Nhan and Nguyen Van Tuanadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Healthcare 2021, 9(6), 718; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9060718 - 11 Jun 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4758
Abstract
Adopting a cross-sectional study design, we aimed to examine the prevalence of psychological problems in different healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in the hospitals in these COVID-19 hotspots (Da Nang city and Quang Nam province) and to explore the socioeconomic and COVID-19 [...] Read more.
Adopting a cross-sectional study design, we aimed to examine the prevalence of psychological problems in different healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in the hospitals in these COVID-19 hotspots (Da Nang city and Quang Nam province) and to explore the socioeconomic and COVID-19 control-related factors that are associated with various psychological problems. A total of 611 healthcare workers were included in the final analysis from 1 August 2020 to 31 August 2020. The prevalence of anxiety, depression, insomnia, and overall psychological problems was 26.84%, 34.70%, 34.53%, and 46.48%, respectively. The prevalence rates of anxiety were approximately equal amongst the groups of healthcare workers, and moderate-to-severe anxiety was the most common in physicians (11.11%). The prevalence of depression was the highest in nurses (38.65%) and moderate-to-severe depression was mainly found in physicians (11.81%). The prevalence rates of insomnia were 34.03% in physicians, 36.20% in nurses, and 31.21% in technicians; in particular, the rate of moderate-to-severe insomnia was higher in physicians and nurses compared to technicians. The prevalence of overall moderate-to-severe psychological problems was the highest among physicians (14.58%), followed by nurses (12.58%) and technicians (9.22%). Statistically significant associated factors of current psychological problems were the occupations of physicians or nurses, less than 1 year of experience, university education, living with 4–5 people, reporting 1000–5000 m distance between home and workplace, participating in the COVID-19 control for less than 1 week, being under social isolation at home, being affected a lot by the community, reporting inadequate equipment in current workplace conditions, frequently working in the department directly in contact with the COVID-19 patients, and feeling anxious, stressed, or sad about current works. Present findings can provide valuable evidence for the policymakers and managers to adopt supportive, encouraging, motivational, protective, training, and educational interventions into healthcare workforce in other parts of Vietnam. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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16 pages, 3016 KiB  
Article
Effectiveness of Testing and Contact-Tracing to Counter COVID-19 Pandemic: Designed Experiments of Agent-Based Simulation
by Young Jin Kim and Pyung-Hoi Koo
Healthcare 2021, 9(6), 625; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9060625 - 24 May 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2570
Abstract
The widespread outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease COVID-19 has posed an enormous threat to global public health. A different set of policy interventions has been implemented to mitigate the spread in most countries. While the use of personal protective equipment and social [...] Read more.
The widespread outbreak of the novel coronavirus disease COVID-19 has posed an enormous threat to global public health. A different set of policy interventions has been implemented to mitigate the spread in most countries. While the use of personal protective equipment and social distancing has been specifically emphasized, South Korea has deployed massive testing and contact-tracing program from the early stage of the outbreak. This study aims at investigating the effectiveness of testing and contact-tracing to counter the spread of infectious diseases. Based on the SEICR (susceptible-exposed-infectious-confirmed-recovered) model, an agent-based simulation model is developed to represent the behavior of disease spreading with the consideration of testing and contact-tracing in place. Designed experiments are conducted to verify the effects of testing and contact tracing on the peak number of infections. It has been observed that testing combined with contact tracing may lower the peak infections to a great extent, and it can thus be avoided for the hospital bed capacity to be overwhelmed by infected patients. It is implied that an adequate capability of testing and contact-tracing may enable us to become better prepared for an impending risk of infectious diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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11 pages, 2883 KiB  
Article
Mortality, Severity, and Hospital Admission among COVID-19 Patients with ACEI/ARB Use: A Meta-Analysis Stratifying Countries Based on Response to the First Wave of the Pandemic
by Ahmad A. Alamer, Abdulaziz S. Almulhim, Ahmed A. Alrashed and Ivo Abraham
Healthcare 2021, 9(2), 127; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9020127 - 28 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2753
Abstract
Background: The use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is controversial for treating COVID-19 patients. We aimed to estimate pooled risks of mortality, disease severity, and hospitalization associated with ACEI/ARB use and stratify them by country and country clusters. [...] Read more.
Background: The use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is controversial for treating COVID-19 patients. We aimed to estimate pooled risks of mortality, disease severity, and hospitalization associated with ACEI/ARB use and stratify them by country and country clusters. Methods: We conducted a search in various databases through 4 July 2020 and then applied random-effects models to estimate pooled risks (ORp) across stratifications by country cluster. Clusters were chosen to reflect outbreak times (China followed by Korea/Italy, others subsequently) and mobility restrictions (China and Denmark/France/Spain with stricter lockdowns than the UK/US). Results: Overall analysis showed no increase in mortality; however, a statistical increase in mortality was seen in the US/UK cluster with ORp = 1.28 [95% CI = 1.04; 1.56] and a decrease in China with ORp = 0.65 [95% CI = 0.43; 0.96] and France with OR = 0.31 [95% CI = 0.14; 0.69]. Severity and hospitalization were not statistically significant in the analysis; however, several associations were seen in specific countries but not in country clusters. Conclusion: The country-cluster meta-analysis provided a reasonable explanation for COVID-19 mortality among ACEI/ARB users. The analysis did not explain differences in severity and suggested the involvement of other factors. Hospitalization findings among ACEI/ARB users may be considered informative as they may have been subjected to clinical decisions and hospital-bed availability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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15 pages, 2953 KiB  
Article
Retrospect: The Outbreak Evaluation of COVID-19 in Wuhan District of China
by Yimin Zhou, Zuguo Chen, Xiangdong Wu, Zengwu Tian, Lingjian Ye and Leyi Zheng
Healthcare 2021, 9(1), 61; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9010061 - 08 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2374
Abstract
There were 27 novel coronavirus pneumonia cases found in Wuhan, China in December 2019, named as 2019-nCoV temporarily and COVID-19 formally by the World Health Organization (WHO) on the 11 February 2020. In December 2019 and January 2020, COVID-19 has spread on a [...] Read more.
There were 27 novel coronavirus pneumonia cases found in Wuhan, China in December 2019, named as 2019-nCoV temporarily and COVID-19 formally by the World Health Organization (WHO) on the 11 February 2020. In December 2019 and January 2020, COVID-19 has spread on a large scale among the population, which brought terrible disaster to the life and property of the Chinese people. In this paper, we analyze the features and pattern of the virus transmission. Considering the influence of indirect transmission, a conscious-based Susceptible-Exposed-Infective-Recovered (SEIR) (C-SEIR) model is proposed, and the difference equation is used to establish the model. We simulated the C-SEIR model and key important parameters. The results show that (1) increasing people’s awareness of the virus can effectively reduce the spread of the virus; (2) as the capability and possibility of indirect infection increases, the proportion of people being infected will also increase; (3) the increased cure rate can effectively reduce the number of infected people. Then, the virus transmission can be modelled and used for the inflexion and extinction period of pandemic development so as to provide theoretical support for the Chinese government in the decision-making of pandemic prevention and recovery of economic production. Further, this study has demonstrated the effectiveness of the prevention measures taken by the Chinese government such as multi-level administrative district isolation and public health awareness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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14 pages, 2788 KiB  
Article
Incidence and Clinical Impacts of COVID-19 Infection in Patients with Hemodialysis: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 396,062 Hemodialysis Patients
by Chun-Yu Chen, Shih-Chieh Shao, Yih-Ting Chen, Cheng-Kai Hsu, Heng-Jung Hsu, Chin-Chan Lee, Chiao-Yin Sun, Yung-Chan Chen, Ming-Jui Hung and I-Wen Wu
Healthcare 2021, 9(1), 47; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9010047 - 05 Jan 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3829
Abstract
Hemodialysis (HD) patients are highly susceptible to COVID-19 infection. However, comprehensive assessments of current evidence regarding COVID-19 in HD patients remain incomplete. We systematically searched PUBMED and EMBASE for articles published on incidence or mortality of COVID-19 infection in HD patients until September [...] Read more.
Hemodialysis (HD) patients are highly susceptible to COVID-19 infection. However, comprehensive assessments of current evidence regarding COVID-19 in HD patients remain incomplete. We systematically searched PUBMED and EMBASE for articles published on incidence or mortality of COVID-19 infection in HD patients until September 2020. Two independent researchers extracted data and study-level risk of bias across studies. We conducted meta-analysis of proportions for incidence and mortality rate. Study heterogeneity and publication bias were assessed. A total of 29 articles with 3261 confirmed COVID-19 cases from a pool of 396,062 HD patients were identified. Incidence of COVID-19 in these HD patients was 7.7% (95% CI: 5.0–10.9%; study heterogeneity: I2 = 99.7%, p < 0.001; risk of publication bias, Egger’s test, p < 0.001). Overall mortality rate was 22.4% (95% CI: 17.9–27.1%; study heterogeneity: I2 = 87.1%, p < 0.001; risk of publication bias, Egger’s test: p = 0.197) in HD patients with COVID-19. Reported estimates were higher in non-Asian than Asian countries. Quality of study may affect the reported incidence but not the mortality among studies. Both incidence and mortality of COVID-19 infection were higher in HD patients. Available data may underestimate the real incidence of infection. International collaboration and standardized reporting of epidemiological data should be needed for further studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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8 pages, 347 KiB  
Article
Toward COVID-19 Information: Infodemic or Fear of Missing Out?
by Sen-Chi Yu, Hong-Ren Chen, An-Chia Liu and Hsin-Yu Lee
Healthcare 2020, 8(4), 550; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8040550 - 10 Dec 2020
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4616
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a global pandemic and exerted a profound physiological and mental impact on the public. Due to anxiety from being bombarded by information from the news and social media, people may constantly read and repost, with a fear [...] Read more.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a global pandemic and exerted a profound physiological and mental impact on the public. Due to anxiety from being bombarded by information from the news and social media, people may constantly read and repost, with a fear of missing out (FOMO), information about COVID-19 on social media. So far, there has been little research on COVID-19 FOMO. We therefore compiled the COVID-19 information fear of missing out scale (CIFS) and administered it to 1178 adults in Taiwan to identify the possible factors influencing CIFS scores. We demonstrated that the CIFS had good reliability, factor validity, and criterion validity. With regard to demographic variables, we found that gender, marital status, travel time to the nearest hospital, and educational background influenced CIFS scores. In contrast, the participant age and whether he or she lived in an urban area did not affect the CIFS scores. With regard to social media usage, social media usage time (r = 0.025) and the numbers of COVID-19-related posts read on social media (r = 0.117) or instant messaging (r = 0.169) were not highly correlated with CIFS scores. Rather, CIFS scores were found to be significantly correlated to the frequency of reposting COVID-19-related information on social media (r = 0.497) and on instant messaging (r = 0.447). These results indicate that CIFS scores are closely associated not with passive browsing on social media but with the frequency at which an individual actively reposts information. In other words, what creates CIF is not an overabundance of information (i.e., an infodemic) but the active reposting and interpretation of information. Individual autonomy for interpretation of the received information and self-determination about reposting are key factors for COVID-19 information FOMO. When facing the COVID-19-related news on social media, it is the active information-related FOMO, not the passive infodemic, that influences our social media usage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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19 pages, 724 KiB  
Article
Lessons Learned from Japan’s Response to the First Wave of COVID-19: A Content Analysis
by Kazuki Shimizu and Masashi Negita
Healthcare 2020, 8(4), 426; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8040426 - 23 Oct 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8460
Abstract
While the epidemiological impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been relatively moderate in East-Asian countries, the pandemic has significantly impacted on citizens’ lives and livelihoods, and Japan is no exception. In the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, Japan managed [...] Read more.
While the epidemiological impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has been relatively moderate in East-Asian countries, the pandemic has significantly impacted on citizens’ lives and livelihoods, and Japan is no exception. In the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, Japan managed unprecedented quarantines and realized the difficulty of controlling COVID-19, finally recording a relatively high number of deaths per million in the Western Pacific region. However, scant research has highlighted the distinctive features of Japan’s reaction and the challenges encountered. To clarify these points and examine Japan’s first response to COVID-19, we performed a content analysis. Minutes of expert meetings were analyzed from multiple viewpoints, including epidemiology, health systems, border control, and health communication. The obscure evolution of the testing strategy, the usefulness of retrospective contact tracing, the rapid scientific risk assessment, a sluggish expansion of health system capacity and response in border control, and misunderstanding between risk communication and crisis communication are made evident by our analysis. Examining previous responses and gathering lessons learned in each country will improve global responses to COVID-19 and strengthen regional health security. Therefore, while investing in public health and ensuring transparency, Japan needs to clarify the previous decision-making process of each countermeasure towards COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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18 pages, 1161 KiB  
Article
Conceptualizing COVID-19 and Public Panic with the Moderating Role of Media Use and Uncertainty in China: An Empirical Framework
by Tao Xu and Usman Sattar
Healthcare 2020, 8(3), 249; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8030249 - 02 Aug 2020
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5225
Abstract
Uncertainty puts people in a binary state of mind, where every piece of external information can positively or negatively affect their state of health. Given the uncertain situation created by the new coronavirus pandemic, this study claims to be the first empirical analysis [...] Read more.
Uncertainty puts people in a binary state of mind, where every piece of external information can positively or negatively affect their state of health. Given the uncertain situation created by the new coronavirus pandemic, this study claims to be the first empirical analysis of the real-time status of public panic in China. It frames peoples’ intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli, creating a psychosocial analysis of public panic. We conducted an online survey of WeChat and QQ users in February 2020 and collected 1613 samples through a QR code questionnaire. We used the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression equation model to conceptualize public panic pathways in different gender and age groups. This underlines the psychological origins of fear and anxiety and points out how the media uses socially constructed public panic. The results show that the outbreak of COVID-19 created uncertainty among the public, and the official media intensified it because of the late dissemination of news about the outbreak’s real-time status. Hence, unofficial media remained faster in news reporting, but the news reporting remained contradictory with official reports. This created doubts about the authenticity of the given information and caused public mental health abnormalities. The study provides a conceptual framework based on lessons learned from physiology, psychology, and social psychology and real-time public analysis to inform policymakers and public administrators about the contextual dynamics of public panic in China. It provides useful insights into the wise handling of this uncertain time and controlling the fatal conditions of public panic created by COVID-19. It has implications for other countries as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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10 pages, 449 KiB  
Article
Knowledge and Attitude of Dental Practitioners Related to Disinfection during the COVID-19 Pandemic
by Shaur Sarfaraz, Juzer Shabbir, Muhammad Adeel Mudasser, Zohaib Khurshid, Ahmed Adel A. Al-Quraini, Maria Shakoor Abbasi, Jithendra Ratnayake and Muhammad Sohail Zafar
Healthcare 2020, 8(3), 232; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8030232 - 25 Jul 2020
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 8742
Abstract
The world is currently facing a pandemic crisis due to a novel coronavirus. For this purpose, acquiring updated knowledge regarding prevention and disinfection during the current pandemic is necessary for every dental practitioner. In our study, we aimed to evaluate globally the level [...] Read more.
The world is currently facing a pandemic crisis due to a novel coronavirus. For this purpose, acquiring updated knowledge regarding prevention and disinfection during the current pandemic is necessary for every dental practitioner. In our study, we aimed to evaluate globally the level of knowledge and the attitude of dental practitioners related to disinfection. A total of 385 participants out of 401 participants from 23 different countries across the world were included in the final analysis after the exclusion of incomplete responses. The majority of the dentists who responded were females (53.8%) and were practicing at private health institutes (36.4%). The mean knowledge score of the participants was estimated to be 4.19 ± 1.88 out of 12, reflecting insufficient knowledge, and the mean attitude score of the participants was estimated to be 12.24 ± 3.23 out of 15, which shows a positive attitude toward disinfection practices during coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Thus, the current study indicated a lack of knowledge in fundamental aspects of disinfection protocols with a significant and positive attitude from dental health professionals toward disinfection regarding the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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13 pages, 453 KiB  
Communication
Factors Influencing Global Variations in COVID-19 Cases and Fatalities; A Review
by Osama Abu-Hammad, Ahmad Alnazzawi, Sary S. Borzangy, Abdalla Abu-Hammad, Mostafa Fayad, Selma Saadaledin, Shaden Abu-Hammad and Najla Dar-Odeh
Healthcare 2020, 8(3), 216; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8030216 - 17 Jul 2020
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 5132
Abstract
Since the first cases of the novel corona virus disease (COVID-19) were diagnosed in China, outcomes associated with this infection in terms of total numbers of cases and deaths have varied widely between countries. While some countries had minimal rates of infections and [...] Read more.
Since the first cases of the novel corona virus disease (COVID-19) were diagnosed in China, outcomes associated with this infection in terms of total numbers of cases and deaths have varied widely between countries. While some countries had minimal rates of infections and deaths, other countries were hit hard by the pandemic. Countries with highest numbers of cases continued to change over time, but at the time of submission of this article they are: USA, Brazil, Russia, UK, India, Spain, Italy, Peru and Chile. This is in contrary to many countries in the Middle East, Far East, and Africa, which had lower cases or deaths/cases rates. This raised many questions pertaining to this variation. This overview explores the potential factors that contribute to spread, transmission and outcomes of the COVID-19 infection. It also uses an evidence-based approach in reviewing the available most recent literature that tackled the various factors that modify the populations’ response to COVID-19, namely, factors pertaining to population characteristics, environmental and geographic factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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19 pages, 337 KiB  
Article
Psycho-Emotional Approach to the Psychological Distress Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Spain: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study
by Sara Domínguez-Salas, Juan Gómez-Salgado, Montserrat Andrés-Villas, Diego Díaz-Milanés, Macarena Romero-Martín and Carlos Ruiz-Frutos
Healthcare 2020, 8(3), 190; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8030190 - 28 Jun 2020
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7067
Abstract
Anxiety, depression, and stress are common and expected reactions to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. The objective of this study is to analyze psychological distress in a sample of Spanish population, identifying the predictive nature of the information received, the preventive measures taken, [...] Read more.
Anxiety, depression, and stress are common and expected reactions to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. The objective of this study is to analyze psychological distress in a sample of Spanish population, identifying the predictive nature of the information received, the preventive measures taken, level of concern, beliefs, and knowledge about the infection. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted on a sample of 4615 participants. Data were collected through a self-prepared questionnaire and the general health questionnaire (GHQ-12). Bivariate analyses and logistic regressions were performed. Of the total participants, 71.98% presented psychological distress. The study population actively sought information about coronavirus, expressed a high level of concern and knowledge, and the most frequent preventive behavior was hand washing. As predictive factors, the degree of concern for COVID-19 was identified (odds ratio (OR) = 1.244, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [1.179, 1.312]), the number of hours spent consulting information on COVID-19 (OR = 1.038, 95% CI = [1.009, 1.068]), or the need for psychological support (OR = 1.135, 95% CI = [1.094, 1.177]), among others. These results could help design more effective strategies towards a psycho-emotional approach for the population when in similar health crisis situations. There is a need for interventions aimed at the psychological well-being of the population that meet the needs of their reality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
6 pages, 792 KiB  
Communication
Increased Risk of COVID-19-Related Deaths among General Practitioners in Italy
by Alberto Modenese and Fabriziomaria Gobba
Healthcare 2020, 8(2), 155; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8020155 - 03 Jun 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3712
Abstract
To date, data on COVID-19-related death cases among physicians from different medical specialties are incomplete and scattered. In Italy, available data highlight that general practitioners (GPs) are, apparently, the most heavily affected group. Indeed, they currently represent 44.1% of the total COVID-19 related [...] Read more.
To date, data on COVID-19-related death cases among physicians from different medical specialties are incomplete and scattered. In Italy, available data highlight that general practitioners (GPs) are, apparently, the most heavily affected group. Indeed, they currently represent 44.1% of the total COVID-19 related death cases occurred among physicians, whereas they constitute about 15% of the total number of doctors. This high proportion is most likely the consequence of a work-related contagion happening especially during the first weeks of the epidemic, and persisting also in the following weeks, after the national lockdown. There are various reasons for these higher contagion rates: GPs perform a lot of medical examinations daily, usually in close contact with patients. Especially at the beginning of the epidemic, GPs might have had scant information on the specific safety procedures for the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 transmission (e.g., there was limited knowledge on the possibility of contagions deriving from asymptomatic patients) and, moreover, the availability of personal protective equipment was insufficient. Furthermore, the risk of infection is highly increased by the virus’ characteristics, like its survival for several hours/days on different surfaces and its persistence in the air after an aerosolization process, with possibilities to be transmitted over distances longer than two meters. Following these observations, and considering the high cost in term of GPs’ lives, the COVID-19 pandemic will probably revolutionize the approach to patients in general practice. Clear and effective guidelines are absolutely and urgently needed for the refinement of adequate measures to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infections among GPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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17 pages, 6813 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Outbreak and Global Impacts of the COVID-19
by Ishaani Priyadarshini, Pinaki Mohanty, Raghvendra Kumar, Le Hoang Son, Hoang Thi Minh Chau, Viet-Ha Nhu, Phuong Thao Thi Ngo and Dieu Tien Bui
Healthcare 2020, 8(2), 148; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8020148 - 29 May 2020
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 10502
Abstract
Corona viruses are a large family of viruses that are not only restricted to causing illness in humans but also affect animals such as camels, cattle, cats, and bats, thus affecting a large group of living species. The outbreak of Corona virus in [...] Read more.
Corona viruses are a large family of viruses that are not only restricted to causing illness in humans but also affect animals such as camels, cattle, cats, and bats, thus affecting a large group of living species. The outbreak of Corona virus in late December 2019 (also known as COVID-19) raised major concerns when the outbreak started getting tremendous. While the first case was discovered in Wuhan, China, it did not take long for the disease to travel across the globe and infect every continent (except Antarctica), killing thousands of people. Since it has become a global concern, different countries have been working toward the treatment and generation of vaccine, leading to different speculations. While some argue that the vaccine may only be a few weeks away, others believe that it may take some time to create the vaccine. Given the increasing number of deaths, the COVID-19 has caused havoc worldwide and is a matter of serious concern. Thus, there is a need to study how the disease has been propagating across continents by numbers as well as by regions. This study incorporates a detailed description of how the COVID-19 outbreak started in China and managed to spread across the globe rapidly. We take into account the COVID-19 outbreak cases (confirmed, recovered, death) in order to make some observations regarding the pandemic. Given the detailed description of the outbreak, this study would be beneficial to certain industries that may be affected by the outbreak in order to take timely precautionary measures in the future. Further, the study lists some industries that have witnessed the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on a global scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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9 pages, 1363 KiB  
Article
Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Screening Clinic (Including Drive-through System) Data at a Single University Hospital in South Korea from 27 January 2020 to 31 March 2020 During the COVID-19 Outbreak
by Min Cheol Chang, Wan-Seok Seo, Donghwi Park and Jian Hur
Healthcare 2020, 8(2), 145; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8020145 - 26 May 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3586
Abstract
In this study, we evaluated the efficiency of a drive-through (DT) screening system for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by comparing it with a conventional screening system. We reviewed and analyzed the SARS-CoV-2 screening data obtained at our university hospital. We [...] Read more.
In this study, we evaluated the efficiency of a drive-through (DT) screening system for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by comparing it with a conventional screening system. We reviewed and analyzed the SARS-CoV-2 screening data obtained at our university hospital. We compared the number of tests for SARS-CoV-2 (using real-time polymerase chain reaction) performed using two different specimen collection systems—DT and conventional—during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in Daegu. Based on the results, the DT screening system collected 5.8 times more specimens for testing than the conventional screening system. From 27 January to 31 March 2020, 6211 individuals were screened for SARS-CoV-2 infection using either the DT or conventional system. In total, 217 individuals tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (positive rate: 3.50%). Of the 6211 individuals, 3368 were symptomatic or had a history of contact with COVID-19 patients, and 142 of them tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (positive rate: 4.22%). Further, 2843 individuals were asymptomatic and had no history of contact with COVID-19 patients, and 75 of them tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 (positive rate: 2.64%). In conclusion, the DT system allowed clinicians to collect specimens for SARS-CoV-2 screening more efficiently than the conventional system. Furthermore, as there might be several COVID-19 patients who remain asymptomatic, expanding the screening test to asymptomatic individuals would be necessary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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17 pages, 1181 KiB  
Article
Does COVID-2019 have an Impact on the Purchase Intention of Commercial Long-Term Care Insurance among the Elderly in China?
by Xiaocang Xu, Lu Zhang, Linhong Chen and Feng Wei
Healthcare 2020, 8(2), 126; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8020126 - 06 May 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5940
Abstract
Purpose: As an important measure to alleviate long-term care (LTC) costs for the disabled due to the aging of the population, long-term care insurance (LTCI) system has been paid more attention in China. In addition to the government-led public LTCI system that has [...] Read more.
Purpose: As an important measure to alleviate long-term care (LTC) costs for the disabled due to the aging of the population, long-term care insurance (LTCI) system has been paid more attention in China. In addition to the government-led public LTCI system that has been piloted in cities such as Qingdao, Chongqing and Shanghai, health insurers such as the China Life Insurance Company are also experimenting with various types of commercial LTCI in the private market. However, the commercial LTCI market is developing very slowly due to public awareness and other reasons. On the other hand, COVID-2019 has had an impact on the cognition of the importance of long-term care for the elderly due to the fact that the death cases of COVID-2019 have been mainly concentrated in the elderly population with chronic diseases such as hypertension. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the differences in the purchase intention of commercial LTCI among the elderly in two different periods: before and after the outbreak of COVID-2019. Methods: By using the Andersen behavioral model and two investigations in two different periods before and after the outbreak of COVID-2019, this study explores the impacts of COVID-2019 on the purchase intention of commercial LTCI. Results: Some significant discoveries were found. For example, 25.8% of interviewees showed purchase intention in LTCI in the time before the COVID-2019 outbreak, while this proportion increased to 37.6% after the COVID-2019 outbreak. People who were younger (OR = 2.128, before COVID-2019; OR = 1.875, after COVID-2019) or who had more education (OR = 1.502, before COVID-2019; OR = 2.218, after COVID-2019) were more interested in commercial LTCI. Conclusion: This study shows that COVID-2019 has had an obvious impact on the purchase intention of commercial LTCI, which provides some enlightenment for China to improve the LTCI system in the future, especially to accelerate the development of commercial LTCI. For example, it is essential to promote the importance of long-term care among the elderly in a focused and targeted way. In terms of the key target audience, it can be developed gradually from the groups with higher education levels and the middle elderly aged 45–64 years old. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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15 pages, 927 KiB  
Article
Epidemiology of Coronavirus COVID-19: Forecasting the Future Incidence in Different Countries
by Johannes Stübinger and Lucas Schneider
Healthcare 2020, 8(2), 99; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8020099 - 15 Apr 2020
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 9479
Abstract
This paper forecasts the future spread of COVID-19 by exploiting the identified lead-lag effects between different countries. Specifically, we first determine the past relation among nations with the aid of dynamic time warping. This procedure allows an elastic adjustment of the time axis [...] Read more.
This paper forecasts the future spread of COVID-19 by exploiting the identified lead-lag effects between different countries. Specifically, we first determine the past relation among nations with the aid of dynamic time warping. This procedure allows an elastic adjustment of the time axis to find similar but phase-shifted sequences. Afterwards, the established framework utilizes information about the leading country to predict the Coronavirus spread of the following nation. The presented methodology is applied to confirmed Coronavirus cases from 1 January 2020 to 28 March 2020. Our results show that China leads all other countries in the range of 29 days for South Korea and 44 days for the United States. Finally, we predict a future collapse of the healthcare systems of the United Kingdom and Switzerland in case of our explosion scenario. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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13 pages, 916 KiB  
Article
Effective Risk Communication for Public Health Emergency: Reflection on the COVID-19 (2019-nCoV) Outbreak in Wuhan, China
by Liwei Zhang, Huijie Li and Kelin Chen
Healthcare 2020, 8(1), 64; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8010064 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 150 | Viewed by 24901
Abstract
Risk communication is critical to emergency management. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the effective process and attention points of risk communication reflecting on the COVID-19 (2019-nCoV) outbreak in Wuhan, China. We provide the timeline of risk communication progress in Wuhan [...] Read more.
Risk communication is critical to emergency management. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the effective process and attention points of risk communication reflecting on the COVID-19 (2019-nCoV) outbreak in Wuhan, China. We provide the timeline of risk communication progress in Wuhan and use a message-centered approach to identify problems that it entailed. It was found that the delayed decision making of the local government officials and the limited information disclosure should be mainly responsible for the ineffective risk communication. The principles for effective risk communication concerning Wuhan’s outbreak management were also discussed. The whole communication process is suggested to integrate the accessibility and openness of risk information, the timing and frequency of communication, and the strategies dealing with uncertainties. Based on these principles and lessons from Wuhan’s case, this paper employed a simplified Government–Expert–Public risk communication model to illustrate a collaborative network for effective risk communication. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research, Other

11 pages, 527 KiB  
Review
What Will Be the Impact of the COVID-19 Quarantine on Psychological Distress? Considerations Based on a Systematic Review of Pandemic Outbreaks
by Marco Cavicchioli, Roberta Ferrucci, Matteo Guidetti, Maria Paola Canevini, Gabriella Pravettoni and Federica Galli
Healthcare 2021, 9(1), 101; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9010101 - 19 Jan 2021
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5451
Abstract
Background: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and related syndrome (COVID-19) has led to worldwide measures with severe consequences for millions of people. In the light of the psychopathological consequences of restrictive measures detected during previous outbreaks, a systematic review was carried out to [...] Read more.
Background: The novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and related syndrome (COVID-19) has led to worldwide measures with severe consequences for millions of people. In the light of the psychopathological consequences of restrictive measures detected during previous outbreaks, a systematic review was carried out to provide an evidence-based assessment of possible effects of the current COVID-19 quarantine on mental health. Methods: This review included studies that assessed mental health indexes (e.g., overall psychological distress, depressive and PTSD symptoms) during and after quarantine periods adopted to management different outbreaks (e.g., COVID-19, SARS, MERS). Results: Twenty-one independent studies were included for a total of 82,312 subjects. At least 20% of people exposed to restrictive measures for the management of pandemic infections reported clinically significant levels of psychological distress, especially PTSD (21%) and depressive (22.69%) symptoms. Overall, original studies highlighted relevant methodological limitations. Conclusions: Nowadays, almost one out of every five people is at risk of development of clinically significant psychological distress. Further research on mental health after the current COVID-19 quarantine measures is warranted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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12 pages, 989 KiB  
Review
The Possible Relationship between the Abuse of Tobacco, Opioid, or Alcohol with COVID-19
by Yusuf S. Althobaiti, Maram A. Alzahrani, Norah A. Alsharif, Nawal S. Alrobaie, Hashem O. Alsaab and Mohammad N. Uddin
Healthcare 2021, 9(1), 2; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9010002 - 22 Dec 2020
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5163
Abstract
Introduction: Substance use disorder has been frequently reported to increase the risk of infectious diseases, which might be owing to the sharing of contaminated inhalation, smoking, vaping, or injection equipment. Aim: This review analyzes the recent literature with the aim to put in [...] Read more.
Introduction: Substance use disorder has been frequently reported to increase the risk of infectious diseases, which might be owing to the sharing of contaminated inhalation, smoking, vaping, or injection equipment. Aim: This review analyzes the recent literature with the aim to put in light the possible relationship between the abuse of different substances (Tobacco, opioid, and Alcohol) with coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Tobacco: Multiple studies confirmed that cigarette smoking affects the respiratory system by increasing the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptors, which have a significant association with COVID-19 infection rate and disease severity. Opioid: Studies conducted regarding the association of opioid use disorder (OUD) and COVID-19 infection severity are limited; however, opioids can lead to both respiratory depression and kidney injuries, causing poor prognosis for those with COVID-19 infections. Alcohol: People with alcohol use disorders are at risk of developing acute lung injury and severe COVID-19 infection. Alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic has two possible scenarios: either increased or decreased based on situations. Conclusion: SUD has been frequently reported to have a positive relationship with COVID-19 severity Further studies are needed to understand the effects of opioids and alcohol abuse on COVID-19. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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Other

5 pages, 914 KiB  
Case Report
May Ibrutinib Have Activity in Respiratory Complications by SARS-CoV-2? Clinical Experience in a Patient with Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
by Javier Molina-Cerrillo, Juan Marquet-Palomanes, Teresa Alonso-Gordoa, Javier López-Jiménez and Enrique Grande
Healthcare 2021, 9(1), 78; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare9010078 - 15 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2351
Abstract
COVID-19 is affecting many countries all around the world. Unfortunately, no treatment has already been approved for the management of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2. It seems that SARS-CoV-2 can induce the activation of an exaggerated immune response against itself according to different mechanisms [...] Read more.
COVID-19 is affecting many countries all around the world. Unfortunately, no treatment has already been approved for the management of patients infected by SARS-CoV-2. It seems that SARS-CoV-2 can induce the activation of an exaggerated immune response against itself according to different mechanisms that are not really well known. Inflammatory interleukins, such as IL-6 among others, play a central role in this uncontrolled immune response. There is a strong rational under ibrutinib use in in the treatment of immune-based diseases, such a as GVHD or RA. Ibrutinib achieves a reduction in the production of TNFα, IL1, IL-6 and Monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1 (MCP-1) by neutrophils and macrophages, that are key players in keeping the inflammatory process. We present our clinical experience about ibrutinib use in ARDS secondary to SARS-CoV-2 in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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7 pages, 205 KiB  
Brief Report
Remote Monitoring Empowerment of Patients with IBDs during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic
by Mauro Mastronardi, Margherita Curlo, Maurizio Polignano, Natalino Vena, Daniela Rossi and Gianluigi Giannelli
Healthcare 2020, 8(4), 377; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8040377 - 01 Oct 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1814
Abstract
Once the WHO declared the Sars-CoV-2 pandemic, the world had to reprogram numerous clinical activities, particularly those related to highly disabling diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). In this study, 1083 IBD patients were assessed, affected by Crohn’s Disease (CD) and Ulcerative [...] Read more.
Once the WHO declared the Sars-CoV-2 pandemic, the world had to reprogram numerous clinical activities, particularly those related to highly disabling diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). In this study, 1083 IBD patients were assessed, affected by Crohn’s Disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC), and subdivided into two groups. The first group included patients who needed treatment in person at the outpatients clinic, while the second group could be tele-monitored because they were able to self-administer therapy. The tele-monitoring was based on telecommunication applications via smartphone, driven by a dedicated clinical control room in the IBD Clinic. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of life (using IBDQ32) of UC patients and tele-monitored CD patients (tele-monitoring group) as compared to those patients who underwent assessment in person in the outpatients clinic (control group). Despite observing a lower number of relapses in the control group than the tele-monitoring group, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of the IBD32Q scores. Tele-monitoring of patients who are able to self-administer the IBD therapy can be an effective vicarious system as compared to the clinical evaluation in person, that could lead to important changes to avoid the overcrowding of the IBD outpatients clinic, especially during public health crises like the present pandemic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
10 pages, 270 KiB  
Perspective
Impact of COVID-19 on Alzheimer’s Disease Risk: Viewpoint for Research Action
by Giulia Abate, Maurizio Memo and Daniela Uberti
Healthcare 2020, 8(3), 286; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/healthcare8030286 - 21 Aug 2020
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7507
Abstract
In the middle of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) outbreak, the main efforts of the scientific community are rightly all focused on identifying efficient pharmacological treatments to cure the acute severe symptoms and developing a reliable vaccine. On the other hand, we cannot [...] Read more.
In the middle of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) outbreak, the main efforts of the scientific community are rightly all focused on identifying efficient pharmacological treatments to cure the acute severe symptoms and developing a reliable vaccine. On the other hand, we cannot exclude that, in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) positive subjects, the virus infection could have long-term consequences, leading to chronic medical conditions such as dementia and neurodegenerative disease. Considering the age of SARS-CoV-2 infected subjects, the neuroinvasive potential might lead/contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we analyzed a possible link between SARS-CoV-2 infection and Alzheimer’s disease risk, hypothesizing possible mechanisms at the base of disease development. This reflection raises the need to start to experimentally investigating today the mechanistic link between Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and COVID-19 to be ready tomorrow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Outbreak: Epidemiology, Research and Implications for Public Health)
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