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22 pages, 10577 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Deterioration due to Salt and Ice Crystallization in Scandinavian Massive Brick Masonry

by Kristin Balksten and Paulien Strandberg-de Bruijn

Heritage 2021, 4(1), 349-370; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage4010022 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5208

Extensive durability problems such as weathering and degradation are found in historic Scandinavian brick masonry buildings, especially from the neo-Gothic period. These are largely due to the crystallization of salts and frost action in the bricks and mortars. This article aims to show [...] Read more.

Extensive durability problems such as weathering and degradation are found in historic Scandinavian brick masonry buildings, especially from the neo-Gothic period. These are largely due to the crystallization of salts and frost action in the bricks and mortars. This article aims to show and illustrate which salts and crystals are found in historic brick masonry buildings and to describe their appearance and behavior. An additional aim is to explore possibilities of preventing salt-related damage on internal masonry wall surfaces, such as using hemp-lime sacrificial plaster beneath the plaster. The objective is to show the mechanisms behind salt-related problems and to perform a case study and a laboratory study on salt-damaged brick masonry containing sodium sulphate. In order to prevent and stop damage to the masonry, it is important to be able to identify the nature of the salt damage and the type of salt that caused the damage. Neo-Gothic brick masonry buildings require well-planned, continuous maintenance of the masonry. It is therefore of the utmost importance to have an understanding of the complex functions of the masonry and of the salts that can cause damage to these historic buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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36 pages, 17939 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Multilevel Procedure at Urban Scale to Assess the Vulnerability and the Exposure of Residential Masonry Buildings: The Case Study of Pordenone, Northeast Italy

by Marco Vettore, Marco Donà, Pietro Carpanese, Veronica Follador, Francesca da Porto and Maria Rosa Valluzzi

Heritage 2020, 3(4), 1433-1468; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3040080 - 28 Nov 2020

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3530

Abstract

More than the 60% of the Italian residential building stock had already been built by 1974, when seismic codes were enforced on a minimal part of the country. Unreinforced masonry buildings represent most of that share, but they are typical for each region, [...] Read more.

More than the 60% of the Italian residential building stock had already been built by 1974, when seismic codes were enforced on a minimal part of the country. Unreinforced masonry buildings represent most of that share, but they are typical for each region, in terms of both materials and structural configurations. The definition of ‘regional’, i.e., more specific, vulnerability and exposure models are required to improve existing forecast models. The research presents a new geographic information system (GIS)-based multilevel procedure for earthquake disaster prevention planning at urban scale; it includes multicriteria analysis, such as architectural types, structural vulnerability analysis, microzonation studies, and socio-economic aspects. The procedure has been applied to the municipality of Pordenone (PN), a district town of the Friuli–Venezia–Giulia region, in Northeast Italy. To assess the urban seismic risk, more than 5000 masonry residential buildings were investigated and common types within sub-municipal areas and exposure data were collected. Simplified mechanical analysis provided a ‘regional’ vulnerability model through typological fragility curves. The integration of results into GIS tool permitted the definition of cross-mapping among vulnerability, damage scenarios (conditional and unconditional) and exposure (seismic losses, casualties, impact), with respect to various earthquake intensities expected in the town. These results are presented at different scales: from the single building, to submunicipal area and to the entire town. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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32 pages, 31406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Earthen Architecture in Greece: Traditional Techniques and Revaluation

by Αpostolos Mousourakis, Maria Arakadaki, Sofoklis Kotsopoulos, Iordanis Sinamidis, Tina Mikrou, Evangelia Frangedaki and Nikos D. Lagaros

Heritage 2020, 3(4), 1237-1268; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3040068 - 27 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7959

Abstract

A big part of traditional architecture both in rural and urban areas in the Greek territory has been built with raw earth. The aim of this paper is to present earthen buildings’ constructions in Greece and show their important contribution to our heritage. [...] Read more.

A big part of traditional architecture both in rural and urban areas in the Greek territory has been built with raw earth. The aim of this paper is to present earthen buildings’ constructions in Greece and show their important contribution to our heritage. The use of earth as a basic constructing material has given different earthen building cultures and techniques. Earthen construction encloses many varied uses and applications, as walls or as plasters. In different periods of time and historical contexts, from the indigenous inhabitants to the neighborhoods of the refugees of Asia Minor Catastrophe, the earth constructions had a primary role. The existence of earthen architecture was investigated in urban and rural sites in Greece. Building information, documentation, and records of buildings’ design, construction techniques, elements, and systems are presented. Today, there is still a rich architectural heritage throughout the country, which has lasted through the years and withstood seismic activities and poor conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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14 pages, 11648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multidrum Stone Columns at the Pompeii Archaeological Site: Analysis of Geometrical Properties and State of Preservation

by Francesca Autiero, Giuseppina De Martino, Marco Di Ludovico, Annamaria Mauro and Andrea Prota

Heritage 2020, 3(4), 1069-1082; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3040059 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2954

Abstract

The seismic vulnerability of ancient free-standing multidrum stone columns is an important issue for the preservation of Greek and Roman archaeological sites. Such elements show a complex and highly non-linear dynamic behavior, requiring specific and sophisticated structural analysis. Different numerical studies on the [...] Read more.

The seismic vulnerability of ancient free-standing multidrum stone columns is an important issue for the preservation of Greek and Roman archaeological sites. Such elements show a complex and highly non-linear dynamic behavior, requiring specific and sophisticated structural analysis. Different numerical studies on the dynamic behavior of ancient multidrum stone columns found that their seismic response is sensitive to their geometrical parameters, as well as to the material elastic properties, the kinetic coefficient of friction and the amplitude and frequency of the seismic action. Therefore, in the present research, a detailed survey of free-standing multidrum stone columns representative of a wide range of elements at the Pompeii Archaeological site was developed to provide a primary evaluation of the seismic vulnerability of such elements based on their geometrical properties. The study focuses on 103 multidrum grey-tuff columns, from four areas at the site: tetrastyle atrium of Casa del Fauno at Regio VI and Quadriportico dei Teatri, Foro Triangolare and Palestra Sannitica at Regio VIII. Grey tuff was a typically locally sourced natural stone, used as a building material in ancient Pompeii. The research areas included both private (Casa del Fauno) and public buildings (Quadriportico dei Teatri, Foro Triangolare and Palestra Sannitica). The mean overall geometrical properties affecting the seismic behavior of the columns in each research area and the discussion of the collected results are herein presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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29 pages, 11413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Equivalent Diaphragm Vault Structures in Masonry Construction under Horizontal Forces

by Pier Silvio Marseglia, Francesco Micelli and Maria Antonietta Aiello

Heritage 2020, 3(3), 989-1017; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3030054 - 03 Sep 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4305

Abstract

In seismic areas, masonry construction is prone to brittle failures due to the mechanical behavior of the constituent materials and to the low capacity of force redistributions. The redistribution capacity is mainly due to the presence of horizontal connections upon the walls and [...] Read more.

In seismic areas, masonry construction is prone to brittle failures due to the mechanical behavior of the constituent materials and to the low capacity of force redistributions. The redistribution capacity is mainly due to the presence of horizontal connections upon the walls and to the stiffness of the roof, which is typically a vaulted structure. The modeling of the global behavior of a masonry building, taking into account the accurate stiffness of the vaults, is a major issue in seismic design and assessment. The complex geometry of the vaults can be considered as an equivalent plate, able to replicate the stiffness behavior and the force redistribution capacity of the real vault. In this study, the efforts of the authors are addressed to the definition of a plate, able to replace the vaulted surfaces in a global numerical model. The ideal diaphragm is considered as a generally orthotropic plate with the same footprint and the same thickness of the original vault. An extended parametric study was conducted in which the mechanical and geometrical parameters were varied, such as the vault thickness, its dimensions, the constraint conditions, and the possible presence of side walls. The results are presented and discussed herein, with the aim of providing useful information to the researchers and practitioners involved in seismic analyses of historical masonry construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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24 pages, 26002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Analytical Characterization of Corvins’ Castle—Deserted Tower. Construction Materials and Conservation Tests

by Rodica Mariana Ion, Lorena Iancu, Madalina Elena David, Ramona Marina Grigorescu, Bogdan Trica, Raluca Somoghi, Sorina Florentina Vasile, Ioana Daniela Dulama, Anca Irina Gheboianu and Sorin Tincu

Heritage 2020, 3(3), 941-964; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3030051 - 20 Aug 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4496

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to analyze the construction materials (mortars) of an architectural monument (Deserted Tower (Lilly Tower) from Corvins’ Castle, Romania). The mortars were characterized following a multidisciplinary approach, combining macroscopic observation with petrographic microscopy, mineralogical analysis (X-ray diffraction) and [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the construction materials (mortars) of an architectural monument (Deserted Tower (Lilly Tower) from Corvins’ Castle, Romania). The mortars were characterized following a multidisciplinary approach, combining macroscopic observation with petrographic microscopy, mineralogical analysis (X-ray diffraction) and elemental analysis (X-ray fluorescence), hydric properties, and color of representative samples of the monument. The results revealed the use of gypsum mortars (produced by lumps with higher Fe content), with minor concentrations of crystalline dolomites of the Southern Carpathians, calcite, and quartz. The materials’ effective porosity and their water absorption capacity were high. A possible solution to consolidate the damaged area with some consolidation products (hydroxyapatite carbonate and its derivatives with Ag and Sr) was investigated, too. The interactions between the mortar’s specimens and the effectiveness of the consolidation treatments were evaluated by physico-chemical analyses (molecular structure by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF), dynamic light scattering (DLS)), morphological characterization by microscopic techniques as SEM-EDS, TEM, and physical and mechanical investigations (peeling test and compressive strength). Results were drawn based on historical, in situ observations, and analytical data, and put into evidence the composition, high weathering degree, and the possibility to surface consolidate with Sr-CHAp. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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22 pages, 6506 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Parametric Analysis on Local Mechanisms of Masonry Churches in Teramo (Italy)

by Generoso Vaiano, Antonio Formisano and Francesco Fabbrocino

Heritage 2020, 3(2), 176-197; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3020011 - 01 Apr 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2222

Abstract

Local collapse mechanisms related to the out-of-plane response of walls are commonly observed in existing masonry buildings subjected to earthquakes. In such structures, the lack of proper connections among orthogonal walls and between walls and floors does not allow a global box-type behaviour [...] Read more.

Local collapse mechanisms related to the out-of-plane response of walls are commonly observed in existing masonry buildings subjected to earthquakes. In such structures, the lack of proper connections among orthogonal walls and between walls and floors does not allow a global box-type behaviour of the building to develop, which would be governed by the in-plane response of walls. In this paper, parametric linear kinematic analyses on the main local mechanisms of masonry churches were performed with the aim to evaluate the corresponding horizontal load multipliers. This study was conducted on 12 masonry churches, located in Teramo (Italy) and affected by the 2016 Central Italy earthquake, whose main out-of-plane collapse mechanisms, namely facade overturning, vertical bending, corner overturning and roof gable wall overturning, have been analysed. For each mechanism, parametric analysis was carried out on varying heights and thicknesses of walls. Firstly, the acceleration values activating the considered mechanisms were calculated in order to conduct checks prescribed by the current Italian standard. Subsequently, on the basis of the obtained results, simple analytical procedures to determine load collapse multiplier for each mechanism were drawn. Finally, ranges of suitable values of both the thickness and height of walls were found in order to always satisfy seismic checks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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12 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

The Timber-Framed (TF) Masonries in L’Aquila: The baraccato Aquilano

by Angelo Aloisio

Heritage 2020, 3(2), 306-317; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/heritage3020018 - 06 May 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1978

Abstract

The reconstruction works following the 2009 earthquake in L’Aquila evidenced the presence of numerous Timber-Framed (T-F) masonries dating back to the 18th century. These masonries, likely built after the destructive 1703 earthquake in L’Aquila, are quite diverse from each other. In the evolutionary [...] Read more.

The reconstruction works following the 2009 earthquake in L’Aquila evidenced the presence of numerous Timber-Framed (T-F) masonries dating back to the 18th century. These masonries, likely built after the destructive 1703 earthquake in L’Aquila, are quite diverse from each other. In the evolutionary process of the so-called Italian baraccato, the presences found in L’Aquila possibly update the record of Italian traditional T-F masonries: the baraccato Beneventano developed after the earthquake in 1627, the baraccato Calabro after the 1783 earthquake in Calabria and the baraccato Aquilano after the 1703 earthquake in L’Aquila. The authors attempt to classify the traditional T-F structures found in a limited area of the city centre, providing simple descriptions of their geometrical and functional features. Additionally, the authors present a map indicating the recorded presences so far. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment and Protection of Cultural Heritage Masonry Structures)

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