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Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 56509

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Masayuki Sakakibara

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan
2. Graduate School of Science & Engineering, Ehime University, Matsuyama City 790-8577, Ehime Prefecture, Japan
3. Faculty of Collaborative Regional Innovation, Ehime University, Matsuyama City 790-8577, Ehime Prefecture, Japan
Interests: interdisciplinary research; environmental exposures; environmental science; environmental health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Win Thiri Kyaw

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan
Interests: clinical pharmacology; neurology and neuroscience; environmental and health impact assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. José Luis Rivera Parra

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito EC170150, Ecuador
Interests: impacts of human activities including ASGM on ecosystems and how to mitigate them; using spatial ecology and landscape genetics techniques, environmental risk assessments and development of the environmental quality biomonitors and bioremediation processes with plants and fungi
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activity has been undertaken in developing countries for socio-economic reasons; however, it accounts for the largest anthropogenic source of mercury emission, at over 700 tonnes into the atmosphere and an additional approximately 800 tonnes into land and water annually, which exposes both ASGM miners and nearby communities to the mercury. Moreover, heavy metals other than mercury have also been emitted into the environment due to the process of ASGM. Therefore, ASGM causes environmental disruption and health problems not only in ASGM communities, but across the whole nation, too, owing to the risks it poses. There have been a number of studies published related to mercury and its impact on environment and health.

This Special Issue is open to any research related to the environmental and health problems posed by ASGM and its management. Topics of interest include:

  • Environmental pollution and its related health issues caused by ASGM;
  • Water quality changes, deforestation and land degradation, and mining waste caused by ASGM and its management;
  • Impact of ASGM on ecosystems;
  • Indicators of mercury and heavy metals pollution;

Mercury- and other heavy metal-related health problems in the ASGM context, and their bioindicators

Dr. Masayuki Sakakibara
Dr. Win Thiri Kyaw
Dr. José Luis Rivera Parra
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • ASGM (artisanal and small-scale gold mining)
  • mercury exposure
  • heavy metals
  • environmental pollution
  • health impact
  • mining waste
  • cardiovascular
  • respiratory
  • bioindicator

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (20 papers)

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12 pages, 2059 KiB  
Article
Sustainability of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) Cultivation in the Mining District of Ponce Enríquez: A Trace Metal Approach
by Carolina Ramos, Jeny Ruales, José Luis Rivera-Parra, Masayuki Sakakibara and Ximena Díaz
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(21), 14369; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192114369 - 03 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3068
Abstract
Historically, cocoa (Theobroma cacao) has been one of Ecuador’s most important export crops. In the Ponce Enriquez district, artisanal and small gold mining (ASGM), and quarrying account for 42% of economic activities, while agriculture and livestock farming account for 30%, making [...] Read more.
Historically, cocoa (Theobroma cacao) has been one of Ecuador’s most important export crops. In the Ponce Enriquez district, artisanal and small gold mining (ASGM), and quarrying account for 42% of economic activities, while agriculture and livestock farming account for 30%, making the analysis of their synergy and interaction key to understanding the long term viability of the different activities. In this study, we evaluated the concentration of potentially toxic metals in different parts of the cocoa plant and fruit, in relation to mining activities within the area. Gold extraction generates pollution, including potentially toxic metals such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). In order to understand the mobility of these metals within the cocoa plant and fruit, the analysis was conducted separately for leaves, pod, husk and cocoa bean. Concentrations of the target metals in the different plant parts and soil were measured using ICP-MS, and the mobility and risk factors were calculated using the transfer factor (TF) and the risk ratio (HQ). The results suggest that Zn, Cd and Cu are indeed moving from the soil to cocoa leaves and beans. Furthermore, the results show that the concentrations of toxic metals in the different parts of the cocoa fruit and plant, particularly in the cocoa bean, which is used for chocolate manufacture, are not higher than those regulated by FAO food standards, as is the case of Cd, which is limited to 0.2 mg Cd/kg and in the samples analyzed does not exceed this limit. Even though the concentration of these metals does not exceed the safety standard, the presence of these potentially hazardous metals, and the fact they are absorbed by this important local crop, are worrying for the long-term sustainability of cocoa cultivation in the area. Therefore, it is fundamental to monitor the local environment, understanding the distribution of heavy metal pollution, and work with the local authorities in landscape management to minimize the exposure of crops to ASGM pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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25 pages, 1757 KiB  
Article
Impairment in Working Memory and Executive Function Associated with Mercury Exposure in Indigenous Populations in Upper Amazonian Peru
by Alycia K. Silman, Raveena Chhabria, George W. Hafzalla, Leahanne Giffin, Kimberly Kucharski, Katherine Myers, Carlos Culquichicón, Stephanie Montero, Andres G. Lescano, Claudia M. Vega, Luis E. Fernandez, Miles R. Silman, Michael J. Kane and John W. Sanders
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(17), 10989; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph191710989 - 02 Sep 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2443
Abstract
The Matsigenka people living traditional lifestyles in remote areas of the Amazon rely on a fish-based diet that exposes them to methylmercury (MeHg) at levels that have been associated with decreased IQ scores. In this study, the association between Hg levels and working [...] Read more.
The Matsigenka people living traditional lifestyles in remote areas of the Amazon rely on a fish-based diet that exposes them to methylmercury (MeHg) at levels that have been associated with decreased IQ scores. In this study, the association between Hg levels and working memory was explored using the framework of the Multicomponent Model. Working memory tasks were modified to fit the culture and language of the Matsigenka when needed and included measures for verbal storage (Word Span) visuospatial storage (Corsi Block Task) and a measure of executive functions, the Self-Ordered Pointing Task (SOPT). An innovation of the Trail Making Tests A & B (TMT A & B) was pilot tested as another potential measure of executive functions. The mean hair Hg levels of 30 participants, ages 12 to 55 years, from three different communities (Maizal, Cacaotal and Yomibato) was 7.0 ppm (sd = 2.40), well above the World Health Organization (WHO) limit for hair of 2.0 ppm and ranged from 1.8 to 14.2 ppm, with 98% of a broader sample of 152 individuals exceeding the WHO limit. Hair Hg levels showed significant associations with cognitive performance, but the degree varied in magnitude according to the type of task. Hg levels were negatively associated with executive functioning performance (SOPT errors), while Hg levels and years of education predicted visuospatial performance (Corsi Block accuracy). Education was the only predictor of Word Span accuracy. The results show that Hg exposure is negatively associated with working memory performance when there is an increased reliance on executive functioning. Based on our findings and the review of the experimental research, we suggest that the SOPT and the Corsi Block have the potential to be alternatives to general intelligence tests when studying remote groups with extensive cultural differences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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14 pages, 48225 KiB  
Article
Characterizing Time-Series Roving Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Activities in Indonesia Using Sentinel-1 Data
by Satomi Kimijima, Masayuki Sakakibara and Masahiko Nagai
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 6266; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19106266 - 21 May 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1732
Abstract
The rapid growth of roving mining camps has negatively influenced their surrounding environment. Although artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a major source of gold production, the mining activities and their activeness are not well revealed owing to their informal, illegal, and [...] Read more.
The rapid growth of roving mining camps has negatively influenced their surrounding environment. Although artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a major source of gold production, the mining activities and their activeness are not well revealed owing to their informal, illegal, and unregulated characteristics. This study characterizes the transformations of roving camp-type ASGM (R-C-ASGM) activities in Central of Katingan Regency, Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, from 2015 to 2021 using remotely sensed data, such as the time-series Sentinel-1 dataset. The results show that the growth of active R-C-ASGM sites was identified at the center of the Galangan mining region with expansions to the northwest part along the Kalanaman River, especially in 2021. Hence, these approaches identify the transformations of roving mining activities and their active or nonactive status even in tropical regions experiencing frequent heavy traffic rainstorms. They provide significant information on the socioenvironmental risks possibly caused at local and regional levels. Our results also inform the design of timely interventions suited to local conditions for strengthening environmental governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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14 pages, 6770 KiB  
Article
Contamination Level in Geo-Accumulation Index of River Sediments at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Area in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia
by Basir, Satomi Kimijima, Masayuki Sakakibara, Sri Manovita Pateda and Koichiro Sera
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 6094; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19106094 - 17 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1729
Abstract
Substances found in watersheds and sediments in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas contaminated by heavy metals are becoming tremendously critical issues in Asia. This study aimed at clarifying the pollution caused by heavy metals in sediments in river basins near ASGM [...] Read more.
Substances found in watersheds and sediments in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas contaminated by heavy metals are becoming tremendously critical issues in Asia. This study aimed at clarifying the pollution caused by heavy metals in sediments in river basins near ASGM sites in Gorontalo Province, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Sediment samples collected from experimental areas were classified into nine clay samples and twenty-seven sand samples, whereas three other samples were collected from the control area. Particle-induced X-ray emission was used to analyze these samples. The Statistical Package for the Social Science and the geo-accumulation index (Igeo) were also used for analysis. Based on the results, Hg, Pb, As, and Zn had a concentration of 0–334 µg/g, 5.5–1930 µg/g, 0–18,900 µg/g, and 0–4923.2 µg/g, respectively, which exceeded limits recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency consensus (1991) and the Indonesian Government Regulation Number 38, 2011. Furthermore, Igeo showed the order of the pollution degree Hg < Zn < Pb < As and reflected an environment contaminated by heavy metals, ranging from unpolluted to extremely polluted areas. Therefore, sediments contaminated by Hg, Pb, As, and Zn could be found along the river basin of mining areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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13 pages, 72210 KiB  
Article
Investigation of Long-Term Roving Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Activities Using Time-Series Sentinel-1 and Global Surface Water Datasets
by Satomi Kimijima, Masayuki Sakakibara and Masahiko Nagai
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5530; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19095530 - 02 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2036
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a significant source of gold production globally despite the sector being informal and illegal. The rapid increase in the number of roving mining camps has negatively impacted the surrounding environment; however, the formation and transformation of [...] Read more.
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is a significant source of gold production globally despite the sector being informal and illegal. The rapid increase in the number of roving mining camps has negatively impacted the surrounding environment; however, the formation and transformation of roving mining camps have not been well studied. This study investigated the long-term trends and significant hotspots of roving camp-type ASGM (R-C-ASGM) in Katingain Regency, Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, from 1988 to 2020 using remotely sensed data, including Sentinel-1 time-series, global surface water (GSW), and world landcover datasets. Results show that several active R-C-ASGM sites existed in the Galangan and Kalanaman areas in 2017/2018. According to the GSW dataset, the Galangan area was estimated to be formed earlier, whereas the Kalanaman areas were recently formed and were associated with the Kalanaman river expansion. Notably, the center of Galangan was still a significant R-C-ASGM hotspot. The findings of this study broaden our understanding of R-C-ASGM transformation and identify significant R-C-ASGM hotspots over a long period. This study contributes to the development of timely and appropriate interventions for strengthening environmental governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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13 pages, 2532 KiB  
Article
Environmental Survey of the Distribution and Metal Contents of Pteris vittata in Arsenic–Lead–Mercury-Contaminated Gold Mining Areas along the Bone River in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia
by Nurfitri Abdul Gafur, Masayuki Sakakibara, Satoru Komatsu, Sakae Sano and Koichiro Sera
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 530; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19010530 - 04 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1922
Abstract
In this paper, we report ecological and environmental investigations on Pteris vittata in the As–Pb–Hg-polluted Bone River area, Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. The density distribution of P. vittata decreases from around the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) site to the lower reaches of [...] Read more.
In this paper, we report ecological and environmental investigations on Pteris vittata in the As–Pb–Hg-polluted Bone River area, Gorontalo Province, Indonesia. The density distribution of P. vittata decreases from around the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) site to the lower reaches of the Bone River, and it is rarely found near Gorontalo City. The maximum concentrations of As, Hg, and Pb recorded in the soil samples were 401, 36, and 159 mg kg−1, respectively, with their maximum concentrations in P. vittata recorded as 17,700, 5.2, and 39 mg kg−1, respectively. Around the ASGM sites, the concentrations of As, Pb, and Hg in P. vittata were highest in the study area. These data suggest that P. vittata, a hyperaccumulator of As, may be useful as a bioindicator for assessing environmental pollution by Pb and Hg. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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14 pages, 590 KiB  
Article
Examining Preference Heterogeneity in Best-Worst Scaling: Case of Preferences for Job Opportunities in Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Communities in Indonesia
by Satoru Komatsu, Yayu Isyana D. Pongoliu, Masayuki Sakakibara and Taro Ohdoko
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 306; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19010306 - 28 Dec 2021
Viewed by 1618
Abstract
This research empirically examines the preferences for job-related attributes among rural villagers living close to artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Indonesia. Based on hypothetical scenarios in which a private company collaborates with the local government to establish a food processing industry [...] Read more.
This research empirically examines the preferences for job-related attributes among rural villagers living close to artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Indonesia. Based on hypothetical scenarios in which a private company collaborates with the local government to establish a food processing industry in these villages, a questionnaire survey designed with best–worst scaling (BWS) was administered to households to determine their preferences. Additionally, the heterogeneity among the villagers was examined by applying a latent class logit (LCL) model. The main household survey was conducted in 2019 in Bone Bolango Regency, Gorontalo Province. The estimation results revealed that villagers are separated into four classes, and each class has different and unique preferences. Creating more job opportunities for society is a highly evaluated attribute; however, the preference for skill acquisition differs among groups. The results indicate that accounting for heterogeneous preferences regarding job opportunities is helpful to delink dependency on ASGM and health hazards and improve the livelihoods of rural villagers. The study yields key information to substantially reduce environmental and health hazards in the poverty-plagued ASGM community by facilitating job opportunities in Indonesia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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11 pages, 4067 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Total Mercury Weight Exposure Distribution Using Tree Bark Analysis in an Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Area, North Gorontalo Regency, Gorontalo Province, Indonesia
by Hendra Prasetia, Masayuki Sakakibara, Koichiro Sera and Jamie Stuart Laird
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 33; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19010033 - 21 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1843
Abstract
It is well known that atmospheric mercury (Hg) contaminates air, water, soil, and living organisms, including trees. Therefore, tree bark can be used for the environmental assessment of atmospheric contamination because it absorbs heavy metals. This study aimed to establish a new biomonitoring [...] Read more.
It is well known that atmospheric mercury (Hg) contaminates air, water, soil, and living organisms, including trees. Therefore, tree bark can be used for the environmental assessment of atmospheric contamination because it absorbs heavy metals. This study aimed to establish a new biomonitoring for the assessment of atmospheric Hg pollution. Reporting on atmospheric Hg contamination in an artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area in North Gorontalo, Indonesia, we calculated the total weight of Hg (THg) and quantitatively measured the concentrations of Hg in the tree bark of Mangifera indica, Syzygium aromaticum, Terminalia catappa, and Lansium domesticum. The THg of Hg in the M. indica tree bark samples ranged from not detected (ND) to 74.6 μg dry weight (DW) per sample. The total Hg in the tree bark of S. aromaticum, T. catappa, and L. domesticum ranged from ND to 156.8, ND to 180, and ND to 63.4 μg DW, respectively. We concluded that topography significantly influences the accumulation of Hg together with local weather conditions. A mapped distribution of the THg suggested that the distribution of THg in the tree bark was not affected by the distance to the amalgamation site. Therefore, tree bark can be used as biomonitoring of atmospheric Hg contamination for the assessment of ASGM areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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9 pages, 893 KiB  
Article
Element Rich Area Associated with Human Health Disorders: A Geomedical Science Approach to Potentially Toxic Elements Contamination
by Sri Manovita Pateda, Masayuki Sakakibara and Koichiro Sera
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 12202; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182212202 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1689
Abstract
(1) Background: Geomedical science focuses on the relationship between environmental impact and human health. The abundance of elements in a geographic area is reflected accumulation of these elements in humans. This study aims to describe the relationship between concentrations of geologic elements and [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Geomedical science focuses on the relationship between environmental impact and human health. The abundance of elements in a geographic area is reflected accumulation of these elements in humans. This study aims to describe the relationship between concentrations of geologic elements and accumulations in the human body as well as element-related symptoms. (2) Methods: Geogenic sampling was conducted in an Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) area and around residential areas in Indonesia, and samples were analyzed using particle-induced X-ray Emission (PIXE). Head hair was sampled, and health assessments were performed to determine heavy metal exposure, especially to copper and mercury. (3) Results: Results show that potentially toxic elements’ accumulation in the human body follows the abundance of these elements in the geographic area, which then affect health and manifest with specific signs and symptoms. East Tulabolo is an area rich in copper (hazard quotient (HQ) in dust = 152.8), and most of the population shows the sign of Kayser–Fleischer rings. Likewise, the Dunggilata area has the highest concentration of mercury, especially in the dust (HQ = 11.1), related to ASGM activity in residential areas. (4) Conclusions: This study concludes that the geogenic concentration of elements parallels the accumulation of human tissue and manifests with element-related signs and symptoms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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26 pages, 1350 KiB  
Article
Economic Impacts on Human Health Resulting from the Use of Mercury in the Illegal Gold Mining in the Brazilian Amazon: A Methodological Assessment
by Leonardo Barcellos de Bakker, Pedro Gasparinetti, Júlia Mello de Queiroz and Ana Claudia Santiago de Vasconcellos
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 11869; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182211869 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3902
Abstract
Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in the Amazon results in the dumping of tons of mercury into the environment annually. Despite consensus on the impacts of mercury on human health, there are still unknowns regarding: (i) the extent to which mercury from ASGM [...] Read more.
Artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in the Amazon results in the dumping of tons of mercury into the environment annually. Despite consensus on the impacts of mercury on human health, there are still unknowns regarding: (i) the extent to which mercury from ASGM can be dispersed in the environment until it becomes toxic to humans; and (ii) the economic value of losses caused by contamination becomes evident. The main objective of this study is to propose a methodology to evaluate the impacts of ASGM on human health in different contexts in the Brazilian Amazon. We connect several points in the literature based on hypotheses regarding mercury dispersion in water, its transformation into methylmercury, and absorption by fish and humans. This methodology can be used as a tool to estimate the extent of environmental damage caused by artisanal gold mining, the severity of damage to the health of individuals contaminated by mercury and, consequently, can contribute to the application of fines to environmental violators. The consequences of contamination are evaluated by dose-response functions relating to mercury concentrations in hair and the development of the following health outcomes: (i) mild mental retardation, (ii) acute myocardial infarction, and (iii) hypertension. From disability-adjusted life years and statistical life value, we found that the economic losses range from 100,000 to 400,000 USD per kilogram of gold extracted. A case study of the Yanomami indigenous land shows that the impacts of mercury from illegal gold mining in 2020 totaled 69 million USD, which could be used by local authorities to compensate the Yanomami people. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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12 pages, 3229 KiB  
Article
Detection of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Activities and Their Transformation Using Earth Observation, Nighttime Light, and Precipitation Data
by Satomi Kimijima, Masayuki Sakakibara and Masahiko Nagai
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10954; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182010954 - 18 Oct 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2044
Abstract
The rapid growth of artificially constructed mining camps has negatively impacted the camps’ surrounding environment and the informal communities that have developed inside the camps. However, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is generally informal, illegal, and unregulated; thus, transformations of the mining [...] Read more.
The rapid growth of artificially constructed mining camps has negatively impacted the camps’ surrounding environment and the informal communities that have developed inside the camps. However, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is generally informal, illegal, and unregulated; thus, transformations of the mining activities and potential social-environmental problems resulting from these changes are not revealed. This study assesses the transformation of mining activities in camp-type ASGM sectors in Gorontalo, Indonesia, during 2014–2020 using remotely sensed data, such as Landsat series, nighttime light, and precipitation data obtained through Google Earth Engine. Results show that the combined growth of the built-up areas increased 4.8-fold, and their annual mean nighttime light increased 3.8-fold during 2014–2019. Furthermore, diverse increases in the sizes of area and nighttime light intensity were identified from the mining camps. Among the studied camps, since 2017, Motomboto camp 3 showed a particularly rapid change in activity regardless of the season of the year. Hence, these approaches are capable of identifying rapid transformations in the mining activities and provide significant insight into the socio-environmental problems originating from the closed and vulnerable camp-based ASGM sector. Our results also contribute to developing rapid and appropriate interventions and strengthening environmental governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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14 pages, 6621 KiB  
Article
Time-Series Assessment of Camp-Type Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Sectors with Large Influxes of Miners Using LANDSAT Imagery
by Satomi Kimijima, Masayuki Sakakibara, Masahiko Nagai and Nurfitri Abdul Gafur
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9441; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18189441 - 07 Sep 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2063
Abstract
Mining sites development have had a significant impact on local socioeconomic conditions, the environment, and sustainability. However, the transformation of camp-type artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites with large influxes of miners from different regions has not been properly evaluated, owing to [...] Read more.
Mining sites development have had a significant impact on local socioeconomic conditions, the environment, and sustainability. However, the transformation of camp-type artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites with large influxes of miners from different regions has not been properly evaluated, owing to the closed nature of the ASGM sector. Here, we use remote sensing imagery and field investigations to assess ASGM sites with large influxes of miners living in mining camps in Bone Bolango Regency, Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, in 1995–2020. Built-up areas were identified as indicators of transformation of camp-type ASGM sites, using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, from the time series of images obtained using Google Earth Engine, then correlated with the prevalent gold market price. An 18.6-fold increase in built-up areas in mining camps was observed in 2020 compared with 1995, which correlated with increases in local gold prices. Field investigations showed that miner influx also increased after increases in gold prices. These findings extend our understanding of the rate and scale of development in the closed ASGM sector and the driving factors behind these changes. Our results provide significant insight into the potential rates and levels of socio-environmental pollution at local and community levels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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15 pages, 690 KiB  
Article
Artisanal and Small Gold Mining and Petroleum Production as Potential Sources of Heavy Metal Contamination in Ecuador: A Call to Action
by José Luis Rivera-Parra, Bernardo Beate, Ximena Diaz and María Belén Ochoa
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 2794; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18062794 - 10 Mar 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4149
Abstract
Mining and petroleum production are the source of many elements and base materials fundamental for our modern way of life. The flip side of these keystone industries is the environmental degradation they can cause if not properly managed. Metallic mining and petroleum production [...] Read more.
Mining and petroleum production are the source of many elements and base materials fundamental for our modern way of life. The flip side of these keystone industries is the environmental degradation they can cause if not properly managed. Metallic mining and petroleum production can contaminate the local ecosystem with sediments, chemicals used in the industrial processes and heavy metals, part of the metallic ore or oil reservoir. The objective of this project was to analyze the spatial distribution of the presence of different potentially hazardous elements that make up the metallic deposits and oil reservoirs in Ecuador, focused mainly on artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) districts. Additionally, we were interested in analyzing this information under the local political and administrative contexts which are key to determining how likely it is that mismanagement of the local mineral deposits and petroleum exploitation projects will end up causing environmental degradation. An extensive and intensive literature search was conducted for information on the presence and concentration of 19 potentially harmful elements. We analyzed data on 11 metallic deposits throughout Ecuador and a major oilfield in the Ecuadorian Amazon basin. We used geographic information systems to analyze the spatial distribution of these reservoirs and their mineral compositions. The results indicated a widespread distribution and high concentration of elements potentially harmful for human health, such as mercury, cadmium and arsenic, throughout the metallic deposits in Ecuador. This is particularly true for long-exploited ASGM districts, such as Ponce-Enríquez, Portovelo-Zaruma and Nambija. This study highlights the importance of understanding geological diversity and its potential risks to better protect the biological diversity and public health of its inhabitants. Furthermore, we consider our work not as a call to stop ASGM mining nor petroleum production, but on the contrary as a strong call to plan every mining and petroleum production project considering these risks. Moreover, our work is a call to action by the local government and authorities to stop corruption and fulfill their duties overseeing the activities of mining and petroleum companies, stopping illegal mining, helping ASGM communities to improve their environmental standards, finding alternative income sources and protecting the local environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

29 pages, 4399 KiB  
Review
A Bibliometric Analysis of the Scientific Research on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining
by Fernando Morante-Carballo, Néstor Montalván-Burbano, Maribel Aguilar-Aguilar and Paúl Carrión-Mero
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 8156; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19138156 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3221
Abstract
Mineral resource exploitation is one of the activities that contribute to economic growth and the development of society. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is one of these activities. Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus to define ASM. However, its importance is relevant in [...] Read more.
Mineral resource exploitation is one of the activities that contribute to economic growth and the development of society. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is one of these activities. Unfortunately, there is no clear consensus to define ASM. However, its importance is relevant in that it represents, in some cases, the only employment alternative for millions of people, although it also significantly impacts the environment. This work aims to investigate the scientific information related to ASM through a bibliometric analysis and, in addition, to define the new lines that are tending to this field. The study comprises three phases of work: (i) data collection, (ii) data processing and software selection, and (iii) data interpretation. The results reflect that the study on ASM developed intensively from 2010 to the present. In general terms, the research addressed focuses on four interrelated lines: (i) social conditioning factors of ASM, (ii) environmental impacts generated by ASM, (iii) mercury contamination and its implication on health and the environment, and (iv) ASM as a livelihood. The work also defines that geotourism in artisanal mining areas is a significant trend of the last decade, explicitly focusing on the conservation and use of the geological and mining heritage and, in addition, the promotion of sustainable development of ASM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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21 pages, 3441 KiB  
Review
Mercury Pollution from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Myanmar and Other Southeast Asian Countries
by Pyae Sone Soe, Win Thiri Kyaw, Koji Arizono, Yasuhiro Ishibashi and Tetsuro Agusa
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(10), 6290; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19106290 - 22 May 2022
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4586
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is one of the most harmful metals and has been a public health concern according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world’s fastest-growing source of Hg and can release Hg into the atmosphere, [...] Read more.
Mercury (Hg) is one of the most harmful metals and has been a public health concern according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world’s fastest-growing source of Hg and can release Hg into the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. Hg has been widely used in ASGM industries throughout Southeast Asia countries, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand. Here, 16 relevant studies were systematically searched by performing the PRISMA flow, combining the keywords of “Hg”, “ASGM”, and relevant study areas. Mercury concentrations exceeding the WHO and United States Environmental Protection Agency guideline values were reported in environmental (i.e., air, water, and soil) and biomonitoring samples (i.e., plants, fish, and human hair). ASGM-related health risks to miners and nonminers, specifically in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar, were also assessed. The findings indicated severe Hg contamination around the ASGM process, specifically the gold-amalgamation stage, was significantly high. To one point, Hg atmospheric concentrations from all observed studies was shown to be extremely high in the vicinity of gold operating areas. Attentions should be given regarding the public health concern, specifically for the vulnerable groups such as adults, pregnant women, and children who live near the ASGM activity. This review summarizes the effects of Hg in Myanmar and other Southeast Asian countries. In the future, more research and assessment will be required to investigate the current and evolving situation in ASGM communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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17 pages, 907 KiB  
Review
Transdisciplinary Communities of Practice to Resolve Health Problems in Southeast Asian Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities
by Win Thiri Kyaw and Masayuki Sakakibara
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5422; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19095422 - 29 Apr 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2017
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has been a major part of people’s livelihood in the rural areas of many developing countries, including those in Southeast Asia (SEA). Nevertheless, because of the use of mercury, ASGM activities have significant local and global adverse [...] Read more.
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has been a major part of people’s livelihood in the rural areas of many developing countries, including those in Southeast Asia (SEA). Nevertheless, because of the use of mercury, ASGM activities have significant local and global adverse impacts on the environment and ASGM community health. Although there have been many monodisciplinary projects by academic researchers and governments to solve the environmental and health problems in SEA ASGM communities, they have not been sufficient to solve the complex socioeconomic problems. This review first outlines the nature of the SEA ASGM activities and the consequent environmental, community health, and socioeconomic problems and then introduces an approach using transdisciplinary communities of practice that involves both academic and nonacademic participants to relieve these wicked ASGM problems and to improve the environmental governance and community health in ASGM communities in SEA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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28 pages, 3844 KiB  
Review
Indonesian Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining—A Narrative Literature Review
by Ami A. Meutia, Royke Lumowa and Masayuki Sakakibara
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 3955; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19073955 - 26 Mar 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5469
Abstract
Indonesia is host to a long history of gold mining and is responsible for a significant contribution to world gold production. This is true not only with regard to large gold mining companies but also to small-scale mining groups comprised of people and [...] Read more.
Indonesia is host to a long history of gold mining and is responsible for a significant contribution to world gold production. This is true not only with regard to large gold mining companies but also to small-scale mining groups comprised of people and enterprises that participate in the gold industry of Indonesia. More than two thousand gold mining locations exist in present day Indonesia. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites are spread out across thirty provinces in Indonesia, and have provided work opportunities and income for more than two million people. However, the majority of ASGM activities use rudimentary technologies that have serious impacts upon the environment, public health, and miners’ safety, which in turn generate socio-economic impacts for people residing around the mine sites. Moreover, many ASGMs are not licensed and operate illegally, meaning that they are immune to governmental regulation, and do not provide income to the regions and states via taxes. The possibility for more prudent management of ASGM operations could become a reality with the involvement and cooperation of all relevant parties, especially communities, local government, police, and NGOs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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34 pages, 811 KiB  
Review
Mercury Exposure and Its Health Effects in Workers in the Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Sector—A Systematic Review
by Kira Taux, Thomas Kraus and Andrea Kaifie
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2081; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19042081 - 13 Feb 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4008
Abstract
Gold is one of the most valuable materials but is frequently extracted under circumstances that are hazardous to artisanal and small-scale gold miners’ health. A common gold extraction method uses liquid mercury, leading to a high exposure in workers. Therefore, a systematic review [...] Read more.
Gold is one of the most valuable materials but is frequently extracted under circumstances that are hazardous to artisanal and small-scale gold miners’ health. A common gold extraction method uses liquid mercury, leading to a high exposure in workers. Therefore, a systematic review according to the PRISMA criteria was conducted in order to examine the health effects of occupational mercury exposure. Researching the databases PubMed®, EMBASE® and Web of ScienceTM yielded in a total of 10,589 results, which were screened by two independent reviewers. We included 19 studies in this review. According to the quantitative assessment, occupational mercury exposure may cause a great variety of signs and symptoms, in particular in the field of neuro-psychological disorders, such as ataxia, tremor or memory problems. However, many reported symptoms were largely unspecific, such as hair loss or pain. Most of the included studies had a low methodological quality with an overall high risk of bias rating. The results demonstrate that occupational mercury exposure seriously affects miners’ health and well-being. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

9 pages, 1406 KiB  
Case Report
Transdisciplinary Online Health Assessment of an Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Community during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Mandalay Region of Myanmar
by Win Thiri Kyaw, Yee Mon Myint, Xiaoxu Kuang and Masayuki Sakakibara
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11206; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111206 - 25 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2161
Abstract
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has a known negative effect on the community’s health; therefore, assessment to monitor community health is essential to detect any issues and enable early treatment. Because ASGM-related health issues are complex and cannot be addressed effectively with [...] Read more.
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has a known negative effect on the community’s health; therefore, assessment to monitor community health is essential to detect any issues and enable early treatment. Because ASGM-related health issues are complex and cannot be addressed effectively with a traditional one-time health assessment alone, both long-term and regular health assessments using a transdisciplinary approach should be considered. In response to this need, we designed an online health assessment tool as a reference for a future long-term health assessment system. An online video interview was conducted with 54 respondents living in the ASGM area of Chaung Gyi Village, Thabeikkyin Township, Mandalay Region, Myanmar, via a social networking service application. The tool was used to evaluate community health during the coronavirus 2019 pandemic, including mercury intoxication symptoms, mining-related diseases, and other diseases. Results show that persons working in mining versus non-mining occupations had a greater prevalence of pulmonary diseases, such as pulmonary tuberculosis, silicosis, and bronchial asthma, in addition to malaria. Based on these findings, online health assessment using a transdisciplinary approach can be recommended as an effective tool for sustainable and long-term health assessment of ASGM-related disease and should be performed regularly following physical health surveys. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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6 pages, 318 KiB  
Case Report
Lead Poisoning among Male Juveniles Due to Illegal Mining: A Case Series from South Africa
by Thokozani Patrick Mbonane, Angela Mathee, André Swart and Nisha Naicker
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6838; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18136838 - 25 Jun 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2204
Abstract
Illegal mining is a major public health and societal concern. Recent scientific evidence indicates elevated blood–lead levels in illegal gold miners and associated communities. Yet, there is little research in this regard from low- to middle-income countries (LMICs), where illegal mining is growing. [...] Read more.
Illegal mining is a major public health and societal concern. Recent scientific evidence indicates elevated blood–lead levels in illegal gold miners and associated communities. Yet, there is little research in this regard from low- to middle-income countries (LMICs), where illegal mining is growing. This case series is extracted from a cross-sectional study of lead exposure in incarcerated juveniles in greater Johannesburg. From survey records (blood–lead levels and questionnaires), three males had elevated blood–lead levels and presented with health conditions and behavioural problems putatively linked with lead poisoning. Based on the record review, all three juveniles were in a secure facility due to illegal mining-related activities. All three cases had high blood–lead levels and demonstrated a tendency toward aggressive or violent behaviour. They also presented with conditions associated with lead poisoning, such as anaemia, respiratory illness, abdominal disorders, and musculoskeletal conditions. Juveniles involved in illegal mining are at risk of exposure to heavy metals such as lead, and there is a need for relevant preventative action and health care programmes in this group. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) Related Environmental and Health Problems)
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