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Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Science and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 29351

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Gerardo León

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Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Ambiental, Universidad Politecnica de Cartagena, 30203 Cartagena, Spain
Interests: water/wastewater treatment; membrane processes (ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, liquid membranes, polymer inclusion membranes); pollutants removal; membranes modification by graphene based nanomaterials; adsorption process; adsorbents derived from agricultural and forestry biomass; advanced oxidation processes (UV radiation or ultrasounds combined with H₂O₂, Na₂S₂O₈ or NaIO₄); kinetics of water/wastewater treatment processes
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pollution is one of the most important environmental problems that affect our world. Traditionally, research on water pollution was focused almost exclusively on priority pollutants, substances that present a significant risk to human health or the environment. Recently, that research has also been extended to so-called “emerging pollutants”, contaminants previously unknown or not recognized as such, whose presence in the environment is not necessarily new, but about whose possible consequences there is concern. They are unregulated pollutants, which may be candidates for future regulations, depending on their potential effects on human health and ecosystems. Emerging pollutants are increasingly studied and characterized worldwide both to improve the understanding of their environmental impact and to look for technologies that allow their efficient removal.

The list of emerging pollutants includes a wide variety of compounds of different nature, structure, and uses, including drugs, psychostimulants, disinfectants, personal care products, surfactants, additives and industrial agents, sweeteners, pesticides, nanomaterials, microplastics, etc. Metabolites and degradation products of the groups just mentioned are also considered emerging pollutants.

This Special Issue aims to cover the recent development and advancement on all aspects related to emerging pollutants, such as nature, identification, analytical procedures, occurrence, health effects, and individual and combined removal/degradation technologies, including biological (aerobic and anaerobic), physical (adsorption, membrane processes, etc.), chemical (reduction processes, classical and advanced oxidation process, etc.), and electrochemical technologies.

Both research and review papers are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Gerardo León
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

emerging pollutant
nature
identification
analysis
occurrence
health effect
individual removal/degradation technology (biological, physical, chemical, electrochemical)
combined removal/degradation technology

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 19593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Green Nanoemulsion for Elimination of Rifampicin from a Bulk Aqueous Solution

by Afzal Hussain, Wael A. Mahdi, Sultan Alshehri, Sarah I. Bukhari and Mohammad A. Almaniea

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(11), 5835; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18115835 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2364

Abstract

The study aimed to prepare green nanoemulsion (GNE) multi-components ((water/dimethyl sulfoxide–transcutol/isopropyl alcohol/capmul MCM C8 (CMC8)) to remove rifampicin (RIF) from a contaminated aqueous bulk solution. Pseudo ternary phase diagrams dictated several batches of GNE prepared following the reported method. Selected nanoemulsions (NF1–NF5) were characterized for morphology, globular size, size distribution (polydispersity index, PDI), viscosity, zeta potential, refractive index (RI), and free-thaw kinetic stability. They were investigated for percent removal efficiency (%RE) of RIF from the bulk aqueous solution for varied time intervals (10–60 min). Finally, scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive x-ray (SEM–EDX) and inductive coupled plasma–optical emission system (ICP–OE) were used to confirm the extraction of trace content of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and others in the treated water. Considering the data obtained for globule size, PDI, viscosity, zeta potential, freeze–thaw stability, and refractive index, NF5 was the most suitable for RIF removal. The largest %RE value (91.7%) was related to NF5, which may be prudent to correlate with the lowest value (~39 nm) of size (maximum surface area available for contact adsorption), PDI (0.112), and viscosity (82 cP). Moreover, %RE was profoundly influenced by the content of CMC8 and the aqueous phase. These two phases had immense impact on the viscosity, size, and RI. The percent content of water, S_mix, and CMC8 were 15% w/w), 60% w/w, and 25% w/w, respectively in NF5. SEM–EDX and ICP–OE confirmed the absence of DMSO and other hydrophilic components in the treated water. Thus, efficient NF5 could be a promising option to the conventional method to decontaminate the polluted aqueous system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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20 pages, 3529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activated Olive Stones as a Low-Cost and Environmentally Friendly Adsorbent for Removing Cephalosporin C from Aqueous Solutions

by Gerardo León, Francisco Saura, Asunción María Hidalgo and Beatriz Miguel

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4489; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18094489 - 23 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

In this paper, we describe the removal of cephalosporin C (CPC) from aqueous solutions by adsorption onto activated olive stones (AOS) in a stirred tank. For comparative purposes, several experiments of adsorption onto commercial granular activated carbon were carried out. A quantum study of the different species of cephalosporin C that, depending on the pH, exist in aqueous solution pointed to a favorable mass transfer process during adsorption. Activated olive stones were characterized by SEM, EDX and IR techniques and their pH_zc was determined. A 10⁻³ M HCl cephalosporin C solution has been selected for the adsorption experiments because at the pH of that solution both electrostatic and hydrogen bond interactions are expected to be established between the adsorbate and the adsorbent. The adsorption process is best described by the Freundlich isotherm model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, while the adsorption mechanism is mainly controlled by film diffusion. Under the conditions studied, the adsorption process is of a physical nature, endothermic and spontaneous. Comparison of the adsorption results obtained in this paper with those of other authors shows that the efficiency of AOS is 20% of that of activated carbon but 65% higher than that of the XAD-2 adsorbent. Considering its low price, abundance, easy accessibility and eco-compatibility, the use of activated olive stones as adsorbents for the removal of emerging pollutants from aqueous solutions represents an interesting possibility from both the economic and the environmental points of view. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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14 pages, 3095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes to Remove Emerging Pollutants from Aqueous Solutions

by Asunción María Hidalgo, Gerardo León, María Dolores Murcia, María Gómez, Elisa Gómez and José Luis Gómez

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 4036; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18084036 - 12 Apr 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1809

Abstract

Currently, there is great concern about global water pollution. Wastewater generally contains substances called emerging pollutants, and if the removal of these pollutants is not given sufficient attention, the pollutants can enter into the water cycle and reach the water supply for domestic use, causing adverse effects on the well-being of people. In order to avoid this menace, a multitude of techniques to reduce the high concentration levels of these substances dissolved in water are being researched and developed. One of the most-used techniques for this goal is the physical-chemical separation of contaminants in water through membrane technology. In this study, different membranes were tested with the objective of investigating the removal of three emerging pollutants: caffeine, metformin, and methyl-paraben. Initially, a nanofiltration (NF) membrane was selected, and the influence of pressure was evaluated in the rejection coefficients and permeate fluxes. Next, a screening of three new membranes to remove methyl paraben was completed. The influence of the operating variables, working pressure, and methyl paraben-feed concentration was checked. Finally, the solution-diffusion model was applied to predict the behavior of the different membranes in the removal of methyl paraben. A good correlation between experimental and calculated values of permeate flux and methyl paraben concentration was obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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15 pages, 1433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Five-Year Enhanced Natural Attenuation of Historically Coal-Tar-Contaminated Soil: Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon and Phenol Contents

by Arkadiusz Telesiński and Anna Kiepas-Kokot

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2265; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18052265 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1898

Abstract

The objective of this study was to assess the soil pollution on an industrial wasteland, where coal-tar was processed in the period between 1880 and 1997, and subsequent to assess the decline in the content of phenols and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during enhanced natural attenuation. The soil of the investigated area was formed from a layer of uncompacted fill. Twelve sampling points were established in the investigated area for collecting soil samples. A study conducted in 2015 did not reveal any increase in the content of heavy metals, monoaromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX), and cyanides. However, the content of PAHs and phenols was higher than the content permitted by Polish norms in force until 2016. In the case of PAHs, it was observed for individual compounds and their total contents. Among the various methods, enhanced natural attenuation was chosen for the remediation of investigated area. Repeated analyses of the contents of phenols and PAHs were conducted in 2020. The results of the analyses showed that enhanced natural attenuation has led to efficient degradation of the simplest substances—phenol and naphthalene. The content of these compounds in 2020 was not elevated compared to the standards for industrial wastelands. The three- and four-ring hydrocarbons were degraded at a lower intensity. Based on the mean decrease in content after 5-year enhanced natural attenuation, the compounds can be arranged in the following order: phenols > naphthalene > phenanthrene > fluoranthene > benzo(a)anthracene > chrysene > anthracene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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14 pages, 1573 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of a Method for Extraction and Determination of Residues of Selected Antimicrobials in Soil and Plant Samples Using HPLC-UV-MS/MS

by Klaudia Kokoszka, Agnieszka Kobus and Sylwia Bajkacz

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(3), 1159; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18031159 - 28 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2584

Abstract

The residues of antimicrobials used in human and veterinary medicine are popular pollutants of anthropogenic origin. The main sources of introducing antimicrobials into the environment are sewage treatment plants and the agricultural industry. Antimicrobials in animal manure contaminate the surrounding soil as well as groundwater, and can be absorbed by plants. The presence of antimicrobials in food of plant origin may pose a threat to human health due to their high biological activity. As part of the research, a procedure was developed for the extraction and determination of ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, cefuroxime, nalidixic acid and metronidazole in environmental samples (soil and parsley root). An optimized solid-liquid extraction (SLE) method was used to separate antimicrobials from the solid samples and a mixture of citrate buffer (pH = 4): methanol (1:1; v/v) was used as the extraction solvent. Solid phase extraction (SPE) with OASIS^® HLB cartridges was used to purify and pre-concentrate the sample. The recovery of the developed method was in the range of 55–108%. Analytes were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an ultraviolet (UV) detector and a tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-UV-MS/MS). The procedure was validated and applied to the determination of selected antimicrobials in soil and parsley root samples. Five types of soil and five types of parsley roots of different origins were analyzed. The presence of nalidixic acid in the parsley root samples was found in the concentration range of 0.14–0.72 ng g⁻¹. It has been shown that antimicrobials are absorbed by the plant and can accumulate antimicrobials in its edible parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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11 pages, 7509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation of Bisphenol A in an Aqueous Solution by a Photo-Fenton-Like Process Using a UV KrCl Excilamp

by Denis Aseev, Agniya Batoeva, Marina Sizykh, Daniil Olennikov and Galina Matafonova

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(3), 1152; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18031152 - 28 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2869

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA), a precursor to important plastics, is regarded as a common aquatic micropollutant with endocrine-disrupting activity. In the present study, we explored the capability of a UV KrCl excilamp (222 nm) to degrade BPA by a photo-Fenton-like process using persulfate under flow-through conditions. The first-order rate constants of degradation were obtained and the mineralization of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was estimated. The results showed complete BPA degradation and high DOC mineralization (70–97%). A comparative analysis of degradation rates and DOC removal in the examined systems (UV, Fe²⁺/S₂O₈²⁻, UV/S₂O₈²⁻ and UV/Fe²⁺/S₂O₈²⁻) revealed a significant synergistic effect in the photo-Fenton-like system (UV/Fe²⁺/S₂O₈²⁻) without the accumulation of toxic intermediates. This indicated that the BPA was oxidized via the conjugated radical chain mechanism, which was based on the photo-induced and catalytic processes involving HO^• and SO₄^−• radicals. The primary intermediates of BPA degradation in the UV/Fe²⁺/S₂O₈²⁻ system were identified by HPLC/MS and the oxidation pathway was proposed. The high performance of the photo-Fenton-like process employing a quasi-monochromatic UV radiation of a KrCl excilamp offers promising potential for an efficient removal of such micropollutants from aqueous media. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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16 pages, 2584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fate of Emerging Contaminants in High-Rate Activated Sludge Systems

by Elena Koumaki, Constantinos Noutsopoulos, Daniel Mamais, Gerasimos Fragkiskatos and Andreas Andreadakis

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(2), 400; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18020400 - 06 Jan 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

High-rate activated sludge (HRAS) systems are designed to shift the energy-intensive processes to energy-saving and sustainable technologies for wastewater treatment. The high food-to-microorganism (F/M) ratios and low solid retention times (SRTs) and hydraulic retention times (HRTs) applied in HRAS systems result in the maximization of organic matter diversion to the sludge which can produce large amounts of biogas during anaerobic digestion, thus moving toward energy-neutral (or positive) treatment processes. However, in addition to the energy optimization, the removal of emerging contaminants (ECs) is the new challenge in wastewater treatment. In the context of this study, the removal efficiencies and the fates of selected ECs (three endocrine disruptors (endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs))—nonylphenol, bisphenol A and triclosan, and four pharmaceuticals (PhACs)—ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac and ketoprofen) in HRAS systems have been studied. According to the results, EDCs occurred in raw wastewater and secondary sludge at higher concentrations compared to PhACs. In HRAS operating schemes, all compounds were poorly (<40%) to moderately (<60%) removed. Regarding removal mechanisms, biotransformation was found to be the dominant process for PhACs, while for EDCs sorption onto sludge is the most significant removal mechanism affecting their fates and their presence in excess sludge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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14 pages, 1844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Markers Specific to Bacteroides fragilis Group Bacteria as Indicators of Anthropogenic Pollution of Surface Waters

by Sebastian Niestępski, Monika Harnisz, Ewa Korzeniewska and Adriana Osińska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(19), 7137; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17197137 - 29 Sep 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2369

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the applicability of markers specific to Bacteroides fragilis group (BFG) bacteria as indicators of anthropogenic pollution of surface waters. In addition, the impact of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) on the spread of genes specific to fecal indicator bacteria and genes encoding antimicrobial resistance in water bodies was also determined. Samples of hospital wastewater (HWW), untreated wastewater (UWW), and treated wastewater (TWW) evacuated from a WWTP were collected, and samples of river water were taken upstream (URW) and downstream (DRW) from the wastewater discharge point to determine, by qPCR, the presence of genes specific to BFG, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis, and the abundance of 11 antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and two integrase genes. The total number of bacterial cells (TCN) in the examined samples was determined by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Genes specific to BFG predominated among the analyzed indicator microorganisms in HWW, and their copy numbers were similar to those of genes specific to E. coli and E. faecalis in the remaining samples. The abundance of genes specific to BFG was highly correlated with the abundance of genes characteristic of E. coli and E. faecalis, all analyzed ARGs and intI genes. The results of this study indicate that genes specific to BFG can be used in analyses of human fecal pollution, and as indicators of environmental contamination with ARGs. A significant increase in the copy numbers of genes specific to BFG, E. coli, and seven out of the 11 analyzed ARGs was noted in samples of river water collected downstream from the wastewater discharge point, which suggests that WWTPs are an important source of these genes in riparian environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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14 pages, 3427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atrazine Removal from Municipal Wastewater Using a Membrane Bioreactor

by Mohanad Kamaz, Steven M. Jones, Xianghong Qian, Michael J. Watts, Wen Zhang and S. Ranil Wickramasinghe

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(7), 2567; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17072567 - 09 Apr 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2842

Abstract

As the demand for potable water increases, direct potable reuse of wastewater is an attractive alternative method to produce potable water. However, implementation of such a process will require the removal of emerging contaminants which could accumulate in the drinking water supply. Here, the removal of atrazine, a commonly used herbicide, has been investigated. Using real and synthetic wastewater, as well as sludge from two wastewater treatment facilities in the United States in Norman, Oklahoma and Fayetteville, Arkansas, atrazine removal has been investigated. Our results indicate that about 20% of the atrazine is removed by adsorption onto the particulate matter present. Significant biodegradation of atrazine was only observed under aerobic conditions for sludge from Norman, Oklahoma. Next-generation sequencing of the activated sludge revealed the abundance of Noncardiac with known atrazine degradation pathways in the Norman aerobic sludge, which is believed to be responsible for atrazine biodegradation in our study. The detection of these bacteria could also be used to determine the likelihood of biodegradation of atrazine for a given wastewater treatment facility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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12 pages, 2281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Surface Molecularly Imprinted Polymers as Dispersive Solid Phase Extraction Coupled with HPLC Method for the Removal and Detection of Griseofulvin in Surface Water

by Kamran Bashir, Zhimin Luo, Guoning Chen, Hua Shu, Xia Cui, Wen Li, Wang Lu and Qiang Fu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(1), 134; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17010134 - 24 Dec 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2878

Abstract

Griseofulvin (GSF) is clinically employed to treat fungal infections in humans and animals. GSF was detected in surface waters as a pharmaceutical pollutant. GSF detection as an anthropogenic pollutant is considered as a possible source of drug resistance and risk factor in ecosystem. To address this concern, a new extraction and enrichment method was developed. GSF-surface molecularly imprinted polymers (GSF-SMIPs) were prepared and applied as solid phase extraction (SPE) sorbent. A dispersive solid phase extraction (DSPE) method was designed and combined with HPLC for the analysis of GSF in surface water samples. The performance of GSF-SMIPs was assessed for its potential to remove GSF from water samples. The factors affecting the removal efficiency such as sample pH and ionic strength were investigated and optimized. The DSPE conditions such as the amount of GSF-SMIPs, the extraction time, the type and volume of desorption solvents were also optimized. The established method is linear over the range of 0.1–100 µg/mL. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.01 and 0.03 µg/mL respectively. Good recoveries (91.6–98.8%) were achieved after DSPE. The intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviations were 0.8 and 4.3% respectively. The SMIPs demonstrated good removal efficiency (91.6%) as compared to powder activated carbon (67.7%). Moreover, the SMIPs can be reused 10 times for water samples. This is an additional advantage over single-use activated carbon and other commercial sorbents. This study provides a specific and sensitive method for the selective extraction and detection of GSF in surface water samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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Review

Jump to: Research

36 pages, 5419 KiB

Open AccessReview

Graphene-Based Composites as Catalysts for the Degradation of Pharmaceuticals

by Olalekan C. Olatunde and Damian C. Onwudiwe

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 1529; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18041529 - 05 Feb 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3710

Abstract

The incessant release of pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment continues to be a subject of increasing concern. This is because of the growing demand for potable water sources and the potential health hazards which these pollutants pose to aquatic animals and humans. The inability of conventional water treatment systems to remove these compounds creates the need for new treatment systems in order to deal with these class of compounds. This review focuses on advanced oxidation processes that employ graphene-based composites as catalysts for the degradation of pharmaceuticals. These composites have been identified to possess enhanced catalytic activity due to increased surface area and reduced charge carrier recombination. The techniques employed in synthesizing these composites have been explored and five different advanced oxidation processes—direct degradation process, chemical oxidation process, photocatalysis, electrocatalyis processes and sonocatalytic/sono-photocatalytic processes—have been studied in terms of their enhanced catalytic activity. Finally, a comparative analysis of the processes that employ graphene-based composites was done in terms of process efficiency, reaction rate, mineralization efficiency and time required to achieve 90% degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pollutants: Nature, Analysis, Occurrence, Health Effects and Removal Technologies)

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