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Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2021) | Viewed by 34630

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Conrado Javier Carrascosa Iruzubieta

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Guest Editor

Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35001 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Interests: pseudomonas fluorescens in cheese; cleaning and disinfection in the food industry; biofilm; cheese making
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Kathryn A. Whitehead

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Assistant Guest Editor

Department of Life Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6BH, UK
Interests: surface engineering; biofilms; surface fouling; hygienic surfaces; microorganisms

Prof. Dr. Arturo Hardisson de la Torre

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Assistant Guest Editor

Department of Toxicology, University of La Laguna, 38071 La Laguna, Spain
Interests: food toxicology; food safety; risk analysis; risk assessment; dietary exposure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Carmen Rubio

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Assistant Guest Editor

Department of Toxicology, University of La Laguna, 38071 La Laguna, Spain
Interests: toxicology; food safety; risk assessment; metals; heavy metals; fluoride; nitrates; dietary; exposure; environmental contaminants
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Most studies on food safety currently focus on the biotic (microbiological) contamination of food, and such studies are generally limited to microbiological issues associated with the food or the consumer. However, contamination of the food environment is a prerequisite to such issues, and hence, studies on microbial contamination of these areas deserve the same importance and publication space in scientific journals.

The formation of biofilm and its interaction with surfaces has become highly relevant as a source of potential contamination in the food, water and hospital environments. For example, pathogenic microorganisms, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is a human pathogen capable of forming biofilms and contaminating medical environments, are responsible for 65% of mortality in hospitals worldwide. Pseudomonas spp. are also a known contaminant of water systems and the food industry.

Classical environmental pollutants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, require studies on risk assessment and exposure in different environments. Further, there is now the risk of exposure to new contaminants such as microplastics and nanoparticles which also urgently require risk assessment. Such contaminants require hazard identification and characterization, exposure assessments and risk characterization. Such results may inform legislation of the acceptable levels of such materials.

Dr. Conrado Javier Carrascosa Iruzubieta
Prof. Dr. Arturo Hardisson de la Torre
Prof. Dr. Carmen Rubio
Prof. Dr. Kathryn A. Whitehead
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Food safety
Biofilm
Pseudomonas spoiler
Surface engineering
Biofilms
Surface fouling
Hygienic surfaces
Toxicology
Food safe risk assessment
Metals
Heavy metals
Fluoride
Nitrates
Dietary

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does the Consumer Sociodemographic Profile Influence the Perception of Aspects Related and Not Related to Food Safety? A Study in Traditional Spanish Street Markets

by Abel Verdú, Rafael Millán, Pedro Saavedra, Conrado Javier Carrascosa Iruzubieta and Esther Sanjuán

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9794; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18189794 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

Street food markets are important for local economic development, but they must also meet visitors’ demands while operating. Since consumers’ trust is based on their perception on different aspects of these markets, the aim of this work was to study which factors most affected their purchase decision criteria. A total of 950 surveys were collected in 21 street markets (Canary Islands, Spain), recording data from the consumers’ estimation on food safety-related items (i.e., hygiene conditions of market installations, products, and food handlers) as well as other categories (i.e., prices and staff professionalism). The gathered data let us determine whether sociodemographic consumers variables like age, gender, or education level influenced their perceptions. The scores showed a strong correlation, the subsequent principal components analysis explained 81% of variability only with the first two components. The level of tolerance toward all items underlies in the first component, which was significantly higher for those aged 60 and older, but no significant correlation was found for gender or level of education. The youngest participants were more demanding about food safety-related aspects, while the middle-aged group was more critical of prices. This was especially true of females, who demanded better quality:price ratios. Knowing these preferences could facilitate the development of more effective marketing strategies, helping make street markets more competitive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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14 pages, 3198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Caenorhabditis elegans to Model the Capacity of Ascorbic Acid to Reduce Acute Nitrite Toxicity under Different Feed Conditions: Multivariate Analytics on Behavioral Imaging

by Samuel Verdu, Alberto J. Perez, Conrado Carrascosa, José M. Barat, Pau Talens and Raúl Grau

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 2068; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18042068 - 20 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1907

Abstract

Nitrocompounds are present in the environment and human diet and form part of vegetables and processed meat products as additives. These compounds are related to negative impacts on human and animal health. The protective effect of ascorbic acid has been demonstrated by some biological systems as regards several nitrocompounds. This work focused on studying the possibility of modeling this effect on nitrite toxicity with the model Caenorhabditis elegans. The three factors studied in this work were ascorbic acid concentration, nitrite exposure concentration, and presence/absence of food. The protective effect was evaluated by scoring lethality and its impact on behavior by means of multivariate statistical methods and imaging analytics. The effects of nitrite and the influence of food availability were evidenced. Apart from increasing lethality, nitrite had disruption effects on movements. All the observed symptoms reduced when ascorbic acid was administered, and it diminished lethality in all cases. Ascorbic acid maintained nematodes’ postural capacities. The results suggest that nitrites’ nonspecific toxicity in C. elegans can be mitigated by ascorbic acid, as previously evidenced in other biological systems. Thus, our results reveal the ability of C. elegans to reproduce the known protective effect of ascorbic acid against nitrite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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17 pages, 3172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ANN-Based Integrated Risk Ranking Approach: A Case Study of Contaminants of Emerging Concern of Fish and Seafood in Europe

by Vikas Kumar and Saurav Kumar

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 1598; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18041598 - 08 Feb 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2310

Abstract

Seafood, one of the most important food commodities consumed worldwide, is considered a high-quality, healthy, and safe food option. However, marine ecosystems are the ultimate destination for a large group of chemicals, including contaminants of emerging concern, and seafood consumption is a major pathway of human exposure. With growing awareness of food safety and food quality, and increased demand for information on the risk of contaminants of emerging concern, there is a need to assess food safety issues related to harmful contaminants in seafood and ensure the safety of marine food resources. In this study, the risks of emerging compounds (endocrine disruptors, brominated flame retardants, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, and toxic elements) in fish and seafood were analyzed according to their PBT (persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity) properties as well as in terms of their concentration levels in seafood. A hazard index (HI) was estimated for each compound by applying an artificial neural network (ANN) approach known as Self-Organizing-Maps. Subsequently, an integrated risk rank (IRI) was developed considering the values of HI and the concentrations of emerging compounds in seafood species gathered from the scientific literature. Current results identified HHCB, MeHg, NP, AHTN and PBDE209 as the top five highest ranked compounds present in seafood, according to the 50th percentile (mean) of the IRI. However, this ranking slightly changed when taking into account the 99th percentile of the IRI, showing toxic elements, methylmercury and inorganic arsenic, as having the highest risk. The outcome of this study identified the priority contaminants and should help in regulatory decision-making and scientific panels to design screening programs as well as to take the appropriate safety measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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13 pages, 1212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Surface Topography and Wettability on Escherichia coli Removal from Polymeric Materials in the Presence of a Blood Conditioning Film

by I. Devine Akhidime, Anthony J. Slate, Anca Hulme and Kathryn A. Whitehead

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(20), 7368; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17207368 - 09 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2145

Abstract

The reduction of biofouling and the reduction of cross-contamination in the food industry are important aspects of safety management systems. Polymeric surfaces are used extensively throughout the food production industry and therefore ensuring that effective cleaning regimes are conducted is vital. Throughout this study, the influence of the surface characteristics of three different polymeric surfaces, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), on the removal of Escherichia coli using a wipe clean method utilising 3% sodium hypochlorite was determined. The PTFE surfaces were the roughest and demonstrated the least wettable surface (118.8°), followed by the PMMA (75.2°) and PET surfaces (53.9°). Following cleaning with a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution, bacteria were completely removed from the PTFE surfaces, whilst the PMMA and PET surfaces still had high numbers of bacteria recovered (1.2 × 10⁷ CFU/mL and 6.3 × 10⁷ CFU/mL, respectively). When bacterial suspensions were applied to the surfaces in the presence of a blood conditioning film, cleaning with sodium hypochlorite demonstrated that no bacteria were recovered from the PMMA surface. However, on both the PTFE and PET surfaces, bacteria were recovered at lower concentrations (2.0 × 10² CFU/mL and 1.3 × 10³ CFU/mL, respectively). ATP bioluminescence results demonstrated significantly different ATP concentrations on the surfaces when soiled (PTFE: 132 relative light units (RLU), PMMA: 80 RLU and PET: 99 RLU). Following cleaning, both in the presence and absence of a blood conditioning film, all the surfaces were considered clean, producing ATP concentrations in the range of 0–2 RLU. The results generated in this study demonstrated that the presence of a blood conditioning film significantly altered the removal of bacteria from the polymeric surfaces following a standard cleaning regime. Conditioning films which represent the environment where the surface is intended to be used should be a vital part of the test regime to ensure an effective disinfection process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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12 pages, 689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxic Metals (Al, Cd, Pb) and Trace Element (B, Ba, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sr, V, Zn) Levels in Sarpa Salpa from the North-Eastern Atlantic Ocean Region

by Alberto Gutiérrez-Ravelo, Ángel J. Gutiérrez, Soraya Paz, Conrado Carrascosa-Iruzubieta, Dailos González-Weller, José M. Caballero, Consuelo Revert, Carmen Rubio and Arturo Hardisson

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(19), 7212; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17197212 - 02 Oct 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2508

Abstract

Sarpa salpa is a fish belonging to the Sparidae family and is usually found in local markets. Toxic metals such as aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and trace elements such as boron (B), barium (Ba), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), strontium (Sr), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn) are incorporated into fish tissues and remain there. The liver has the highest concentrations of all the analyzed toxic metals and almost all the analyzed trace elements. The consumption of 100 g/day of S. salpa muscle tissue does not pose a health risk. However, 100 g/day of liver consumption may pose a serious health risk due to the intake of Cd (572% of the tolerable weekly intake for adults with a body weight of 68.48 kg) and Pb (117% of the tolerable daily intake for adults weighing 68.48 kg). The consumption of liver of this species is not recommended due to its possible harmful effects on health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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Review

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14 pages, 773 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics as Emerging Food Contaminants: A Challenge for Food Safety

by Carmen Rubio-Armendáriz, Samuel Alejandro-Vega, Soraya Paz-Montelongo, Ángel J. Gutiérrez-Fernández, Conrado J. Carrascosa-Iruzubieta and Arturo Hardisson-de la Torre

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1174; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19031174 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5859

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as emerging environmental pollutants classified as primary or secondary based on their source. Composition, shape, size, and colour, among other characteristics, are associated with their capacity to access the food chain and their risks. While the environmental impact of MPs has received much attention, the risks for humans derived from their dietary exposure have not been yet assessed. Several institutions and researchers support that the current knowledge does not supply solid data to complete a solid risk characterization of dietary MPs. The aim of this paper is to review the current knowledge about MPs in foods and to discuss the challenges and gaps for a risk analysis. The presence of MPs in food and beverages has been worldwide observed, but most authors considered the current data to be not only insufficient but of questionable quality mainly because of the outstanding lack of consensus about a standardized quantifying method and a unified nomenclature. Drinking water, crustaceans/molluscs, fish, and salt have been identified as relevant dietary sources of MPs for humans by most published studies. The hazard characterization presents several gaps concerning the knowledge of the toxicokinetic, toxicodynamic, and toxicity of MPs in humans that impede the estimation of food safety standards based on risk. This review provides a tentative exposure assessment based on the levels of MPs published for drinking water, crustaceans and molluscs, fish, and salt and using the mean European dietary consumption estimates. The intake of 2 L/day of water, 70.68 g/day of crustaceans/molluscs, 70.68 g/day of fish, and 9.4 g/day of salt would generate a maximum exposure to 33,626, 212.04, 409.94 and 6.40 particles of MPs/day, respectively. The inexistence of reference values to evaluate the MPs dietary intake prevents the dietary MPs risk characterization and therefore the management of this risk. Scientists and Food Safety Authorities face several challenges but also opportunities associated to the occurrence of MPs in foods. More research on the MPs characterization and exposure is needed bearing in mind that any future risk assessment report should involve a total diet perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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32 pages, 588 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Preservation of Hard and Semi-Hard Cheeses: Quality and Safety

by Ana Isabel Nájera, Sonia Nieto, Luis Javier R. Barron and Marta Albisu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(18), 9789; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18189789 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5191

Abstract

Cheese is a dairy product with potential health benefits. Cheese consumption has increased due to the significant diversity of varieties, versatility of product presentation, and changes in consumers’ lifestyles. Spoilage of hard and semi-hard cheeses can be promoted by their maturation period and/or by their long shelf-life. Therefore, preservation studies play a fundamental role in maintaining and/or increasing their shelf-life, and are of significant importance for the dairy sector. The aim of this review is to discuss the most effective methods to ensure the safety and sensory quality of ripened cheeses. We review traditional methods, such as freezing, and modern and innovative technologies, such as high hydrostatic pressures, chemical and natural vegetable origin preservatives, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, edible coatings and films, and other technologies applied at the end of storage and marketing stages, including light pulses and irradiation. For each technology, the main advantages and limitations for industrial application in the dairy sector are discussed. Each type of cheese requires a specific preservation treatment and optimal application conditions to ensure cheese quality and safety during storage. The environmental impact of the preservation technologies and their contribution to the sustainability of the food chain are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

23 pages, 23142 KiB

Open AccessReview

Chemical Contamination Pathways and the Food Safety Implications along the Various Stages of Food Production: A Review

by Kgomotso Lebelo, Ntsoaki Malebo, Mokgaotsa Jonas Mochane and Muthoni Masinde

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(11), 5795; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18115795 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 10834

Abstract

Historically, chemicals exceeding maximum allowable exposure levels have been disastrous to underdeveloped countries. The global food industry is primarily affected by toxic chemical substances because of natural and anthropogenic factors. Food safety is therefore threatened due to contamination by chemicals throughout the various stages of food production. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the form of pesticides and other chemical substances such as Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) have a widely documented negative impact due to their long-lasting effect on the environment. This present review focuses on the chemical contamination pathways along the various stages of food production until the food reaches the consumer. The contamination of food can stem from various sources such as the agricultural sector and pollution from industrialized regions through the air, water, and soil. Therefore, it is imperative to control the application of chemicals during food packaging, the application of pesticides, and antibiotics in the food industry to prevent undesired residues on foodstuffs. Ultimately, the protection of consumers from food-related chemical toxicity depends on stringent efforts from regulatory authorities both in developed and underdeveloped nations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Safety: Microbial and Environmental Contamination in the Food Industry)

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