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Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Toxicology and Public Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2021) | Viewed by 60098

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis

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Guest Editor

1. Laboratory of Molecular Biomedicine, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2. Laboratory of Food Safety and Food Integrity, Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
3. Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Interests: heavy metals; pesticide residues; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); microplastics

Prof. Dr. Gergely Tóth

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Guest Editor

Georgikon Faculty, University of Pannonia, 16., Deák F. u., 8360 Keszthely, and Agricultural Research Centre, Budapest Hermann Ottó út 15. Hungary
Interests: soil-food web interactions; risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Food contamination by chemicals from the environment is a worldwide food safety issue, causing a tremendous threat to human health. These chemicals belong to many groups, such as metals/metalloids, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), electronic waste, radioactive elements, plastics, and nanoparticles. Some of these occur naturally in the environment, while others are produced from anthropogenic sources. They may contaminate our food, including crops, livestock, seafood, and drinking water and exert adverse effects on our health. Therefore, it is vital to perform assessments of the associated potential risks. Monitoring contamination levels, enactment of control measures including remediation, and consideration of socio-political implications are important to provide safer food globally.

Dear Colleagues, I invite you to contribute on the basis of your experience in this Special Issue which aims to strengthen the knowledge on the typical and emerging food contaminants that impact on human health, for a more precise risk assessment.

Dr. Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis
Prof. Dr. Gergely Tóth
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Heavy metals
Pesticide residues
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Microplastics
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs)
Soil threats
Risk assessment

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 1986 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Edible Vegetable Seeds and Oil Samples Available in Pakistani Retail Markets and Estimation of Dietary Intake in Consumers

by Muhammad Waqas, Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Wajeeha Pervaiz, Touheed Ahmad, Sunusi Usman, Nada Basheir Ali and Muhammad Rafique Asi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8015; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18158015 - 29 Jul 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2636

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites toxic to humans as well as animals. The environmental conditions, conventional agricultural practices, and illiteracy are the main factors which favor the production of AFs in food and feed. In the current study 744 samples of vegetable seeds and oils (soybean, sunflower, canola, olive, corn, and mustard) were collected and tested for the presence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and total AFs. Liquid-liquid extraction was employed for the extraction of AFs from seeds and oil samples. Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detection was used for the analysis. The results have shown that 92 (56.7%) samples of imported and 108 (57.0%) samples of local edible seeds were observed to be contaminated with AFs. All samples of edible seeds have AFB₁ levels greater than the proposed limit set by the European Union (EU, 2 µg/kg) and 12 (7.40%) samples of imported seeds and 14 (7.40%) samples of local seeds were found in the range ≥ 50 µg/kg. About 78 (43.3%) samples of imported edible oil and 103 (48.3%) sample of local edible oil were observed to be positive for AFs. Furthermore, 16 (8.88%) and six (3.33%) samples of imported vegetable oil have levels of total AFs in a range (21–50 µg/kg) and greater than 50 µg/kg, respectively. The findings indicate significant differences in AFs levels between imported and local vegetable oil samples (t = 22.27 and p = 0.009) at α = 0.05 and a significant difference in AFs levels were found between vegetable seeds and oil samples (t = −17.75, p = 0.009) at α = 0.05. The highest dietary intake was found for a local sunflower oil sample (0.90 µg/kg/day) in female individuals (16–22 age group). The results have shown considerably high levels of AFB1 and total AFs in seeds and oil samples and emphasise the need to monitor carefully the levels of these toxic substances in food and feed on regular basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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10 pages, 1265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Risk, Family Income, and Fish Consumption Estimates of Mercury and Omega-3 PUFAs in the United States

by Hannah I. Hoffman, Walter G. Bradley, Celia Y. Chen, Erik P. Pioro, Elijah W. Stommel and Angeline S. Andrew

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4528; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18094528 - 24 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2359

Abstract

Most amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) cases are considered sporadic, without a known genetic basis, and lifestyle factors are suspected to play an etiologic role. We previously observed increased risk of ALS associated with high nail mercury levels as an exposure biomarker and thus hypothesized that mercury exposure via fish consumption patterns increases ALS risk. Lifestyle surveys were obtained from ALS patients (n = 165) and n = 330 age- and sex-matched controls without ALS enrolled in New Hampshire, Vermont, or Ohio, USA. We estimated their annual intake of mercury and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) via self-reported seafood consumption habits, including species and frequency. In our multivariable model, family income showed a significant positive association with ALS risk (p = 0.0003, adjusted for age, sex, family history, education, and race). Neither the estimated annual mercury nor omega-3 PUFA intakes via seafood were associated with ALS risk. ALS incidence is associated with socioeconomic status; however, consistent with a prior international study, this relationship is not linked to mercury intake estimated via fish or seafood consumption patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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15 pages, 1654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Speciation, Cooking and Changes in Bioaccessibility on Methylmercury Exposure Assessment for Contrasting Diets of Fish and Marine Mammals

by Tania Charette, Gregory Kaminski, Maikel Rosabal and Marc Amyot

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2565; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18052565 - 04 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2103

Abstract

Uptake of the neurotoxicant monomethylmercury (MeHg) from fish and marine mammals continues to present a public health concern in Canada and elsewhere. However, fish and marine mammals are key diet items contributing to food security for some Indigenous populations in Canada. Mercury (Hg) exposure is estimated assuming that 100% of Hg is methylated, that 100% will be absorbed by the consumer and that cooking does not affect MeHg concentrations. Some of these assumptions do not correspond to our current state of knowledge. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of additional variables on Hg exposure equation using probabilistic risk analysis. New variables tested were (1) the proportion of methylated Hg compared to total Hg (pMeHg, %), (2) the relative absorption factor (RAF, %) expressed as bioaccessibility and (3) the mass loss factor (MLF, unitless) that represents the loss of moisture during cooking, known to increase MeHg concentration in fish and mammals. For the new variables, data from literature were used in order to set point estimate values that were further used in the probabilistic risk analysis. Modelling results for both fish and marine mammals indicate that adding these new variables significantly influenced estimates of MeHg exposure (Mood’s median test, p < 0.05). This study highlights that the evaluation of exposure to MeHg is sensitive to pMeHg, RAF and MLF, and the inclusion of these variables in risk assessment should be considered with care. Further research is needed to provide better food-dependent, population-specific estimates of RAF and MLF before formal inclusion in exposure estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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13 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Patulin Contamination of Citrus Fruits from Punjab and Northern Pakistan and Estimation of Associated Dietary Intake

by Kinza Aslam, Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Sunusi Usman and Nada Basheir Ali

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2270; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18052270 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2254

Abstract

This research aims to assess the natural occurrence of patulin (PAT) in selected citrus fruits from central cities of Punjab and Pakistan’s northern cities. A total of 2970 fruit samples from 12 citrus cultivars were examined using liquid chromatography fitted with a UV detector. The detection limit (LOD) and quantification limit were 0.04 and 0.12 µg/kg, respectively. About 56% of samples of citrus fruits from Punjab’s central cities, Pakistan, were found to be contaminated with PAT, with values ranging from 0.12 to 1150 µg/kg in samples from central Punjab cities. Furthermore, 31.7% of samples of citrus fruits from northern cities of Pakistan were contaminated with PAT, with values ranging from 0.12 to 320 µg/kg. About 22.1% of citrus fruit samples had PAT levels greater than the suggested limits established by the European Union (EU). The dietary intake levels of PAT ranged from 0.10 to 1.11 µg/kg bw/day in the central cities of Punjab, Pakistan, and 0.13 to 1.93 µg/kg bw/day in the northern cities of Pakistan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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14 pages, 3171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation in Aflatoxin Levels in Edible Seeds, Estimation of Its Dietary Intake and Vitamin E Levels in Southern Areas of Punjab, Pakistan

by Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Muhammed Muzammel Shehzad, Sunusi Usman, Nada Basheir Ali, Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Nadia Naheed and Muhammad Rafique Asi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8964; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17238964 - 02 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2058

Abstract

A total of 779 samples of edible nuts (melon seeds, watermelon seeds, pumpkin seeds, and cantaloupe seeds) from Southern Punjab (Pakistan), were collected during the summer and the winter seasons. The natural occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) and vitamin E (tocopherols) levels were investigated using HPLC. The results have shown that 180 (43.4%) of samples from the winter season and 122 (33.4%) samples from the summer season were found positive for AFs. Elevated average levels of total AFs (20.9 ± 3.10 μg/kg, dry weight) were observed in watermelon seeds without shell, and the lowest average amount (15.9 ± 3.60 μg/kg) were documented in melon seeds without shell samples from the winter season. An elevated average amount of total AFs 17.3 ± 1.50 μg/kg was found in pumpkin seeds available without a shell. The results have documented a significant difference in total AFs levels in edible seeds available with shells versus without shells (α = 0.05 & 0.01). The highest dietary intake of 6.30 μg/kg/day was found in female individuals from consuming pumpkin seeds (without shell) in the winter season. A value of 3.00 μg/kg/day was found in pumpkin seed without shell in the summer season in female individuals. The highest total tocopherol levels were 22.2 ± 7.70 ng/100 g in pumpkin seeds samples from the winter season and 14.5 ± 5.50 mg/100 g in melon seed samples from the summer season. The variation of total tocopherol levels in edible seeds among the winter and summer seasons showed a significant difference (p ≤ 0.0054), except watermelon seeds samples with non-significant differences (p ≥ 0.183). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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11 pages, 466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide and Associated Health Risks for the Korean Population

by Sanghee Lee and Hyun Jung Kim

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(20), 7619; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207619 - 19 Oct 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2834

Abstract

The aim of the study was to estimate the dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) from the consumption of various processed food and to assess the associated health risks in different age groups in Korea. Potato crisps and French fries presented the highest mean levels of AA (546 and 372 μg/kg, respectively) followed by coffee (353 μg/kg) and tea products (245 μg/kg). The mean AA dietary exposure values for toddlers (≤2 years), children (3–6 years), children (7–12 years), adolescents (13–19 years), adults (20–64 years), and seniors (≥65 years) were estimated to be 0.15, 0.13, 0.06, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.06 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively. Based on the benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL₁₀) of 0.18 and 0.31 mg/kg BW/day, the calculated mean and 95th percentile values for the margin of exposure were below 10,000 for the all age groups suggesting possible health concern for Koreans. Biscuits, crisps, and coffee were the primary foods contributing to dietary AA exposure among these in the Korean populations. In children, considering the health risk of AA dietary exposure, especially from biscuits and crisps, there is a need to further control and modify dietary habits to ensure lower AA exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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23 pages, 492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Health Risk Assessment through Roasted Meats Consumption

by Luana C. S. Leite, Elaine S. de P. Melo, Daniela G. Arakaki, Elisvânia F. dos Santos and Valter A. do Nascimento

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(18), 6737; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17186737 - 16 Sep 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

Data on the content of metals and metalloids in roasted meats with different types of wood and charcoal are still scarce in the literature. The concentrations of metals (Al, Cr, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, V, and Zn) and metalloid (As) were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-OES) after microwave digestion, and the estimated daily intake (EDI) for adults was assessed to determine the hazard quotient (HQ). The concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, and Fe in raw meats were below the data obtained in other countries. The concentration of As (0.17 ± 0.42–0.23 ± 0.10 mg/kg), Mg (206.77 ± 3.99–291.95 ± 8.87 mg/kg), V (0.42 ± 0.14–6.66 ± 0.80 mg/kg), and Zn (6.66 ± 0.80–48.13 ± 0.56 mg/kg) in raw meats exceeded the values in the literature. The concentrations of Mg, As, Cr, Fe, V, and Zn are high when the meat is roasted using wood. All levels of Al, As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, V, and Zn in raw meats are lower than those of meat roasted with coal and wood. The content of As in meat roasted with Chromed Copper Arsenate (CCA) wood (15.10 ± 0.27–26.25 ± 1.47 mg/kg) is higher than meat roasted with charcoal (0.46 ± 0.09–1.16 ± 0.50 mg/kg). EDI and HQ values revealed a minimal exposure of the adult population to those metals through roasted-meats consumption. However, EDI values of As in some roasted meats are above standard limits. Roast meats with wood showed higher levels of major and trace elements than meats roasted with coal. High exposures, in the long-term, may cause damage to health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

10 pages, 1398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Deoxynivalenol in Wheat, Corn and Its Products and Estimation of Dietary Intake

by Shahzad Zafar Iqbal, Sunusi Usman, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Nada Basheir Ali, Tahmina Saif and Muhammad Rafique Asi

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(15), 5602; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17155602 - 03 Aug 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3131

Abstract

The main goal of the present research was to explore the seasonal variation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat, corn, and their products, collected during 2018–2019. Samples of 449 of wheat and products and 270 samples of corn and their products were examined using reverse-phase liquid chromatography with a UV detector. The findings of the present work showed that 104 (44.8%) samples of wheat and products from the summer season, and 91 (41.9%) samples from winter season were contaminated with DON (concentration limit of detections (LOD) to 2145 µg/kg and LOD to 2050 µg/kg), from summer and winter seasons, respectively. In corn and products, 87 (61.2%) samples from summer and 57 (44.5%) samples from winter season were polluted with DON with levels ranging from LOD to 2967 µg/kg and LOD to 2490 µg/kg, from the summer and winter season, respectively. The highest dietary intake of DON was determined in wheat flour 8.84 µg/kg body weight/day from the summer season, and 7.21 µg/kg body weight/day from the winter season. The findings of the work argued the need to implement stringent guidelines and create awareness among farmers, stakeholders, and traders of the harmful effect of DON. It is mostly observed that cereal crops are transported and stockpiled in jute bags, which may absorb moisture from the environment and produce favorable conditions for fungal growth. Therefore, these crops must store in polyethylene bags during transportation and storage, and moisture should be controlled. It is highly desirable to use those varieties that are more resistant to fungi attack. Humidity and moisture levels need to be controlled during storage and transportation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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19 pages, 1792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Health Risk Assessment of Dietary Heavy Metals Intake from Fruits and Vegetables Grown in Selected Old Mining Areas—A Case Study: The Banat Area of Southern Carpathians

by Dan Nicolae Manea, Anişoara Aurelia Ienciu, Ramona Ştef, Iosefina Laura Şmuleac, Iosif Ion Gergen and Dragos Vasile Nica

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(14), 5172; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17145172 - 17 Jul 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 2930

Abstract

In this study, we conducted a noncarcinogenic risk assessment of consuming vegetables and fruits grown in two old mining areas from the Banat area of Southern Carpathians (Romania), Moldova Veche (M) and Rusca Montana (R) and in a nonpolluted reference area located near the village of Borlova (Ref). Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cd and Pb in soils and commonly eaten vegetables and fruits were measured and used for calculating the weighted estimated daily intake of metals (WEDIM), the target hazard quotients (THQ) and the total target hazard quotients (TTHQ) for normal daily consumption in adults. Levels of certain metals in soils and plants from the R area (Pb) and the M area (Cu) were higher than those measured in the Ref area—and often exceeded normal or even alert-threshold levels. TTHQs for the R area (1.60; 6.03) and the M area (1.11; 2.54) were above one for leafy vegetables and root vegetables, respectively, suggesting a major risk of adverse health effects for diets, including these vegetal foodstuffs. Moreover, THQ and TTHQ indicated a higher population health risk for the R area than for the M area, with the Ref area being a safe zone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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Review

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23 pages, 940 KiB

Open AccessReview

Acrylamide in Bakery Products: A Review on Health Risks, Legal Regulations and Strategies to Reduce Its Formation

by Cristina Sarion, Georgiana Gabriela Codină and Adriana Dabija

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 4332; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18084332 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 9025

Abstract

Acrylamide is a contaminant as defined in Council Regulation (EEC) No 315/93 and as such, it is considered a chemical hazard in the food chain. The toxicity of acrylamide has been acknowledged since 2002, among its toxicological effects on humans being neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity. Acrylamide has been classified as carcinogenic in the 2A group, with human exposure leading to progressive degeneration of the peripheral and central nervous systems characterized by cognitive and motor abnormalities. Bakery products (bread, crispbread, cakes, batter, breakfast cereals, biscuits, pies, etc.) are some of the major sources of dietary acrylamide. The review focuses on the levels of acrylamide in foods products, in particular bakery ones, and the risk that resulting dietary intake of acrylamide has on human health. The evolving legislative situation regarding the acrylamide content from foodstuffs, especially bakery ones, in the European Union is discussed underlining different measures that food producers must take in order to comply with the current regulations regarding the acrylamide levels in their products. Different approaches to reduce the acrylamide level in bakery products such as the use of asparginase, calcium salts, antioxidants, acids and their salts, etc., are described in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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24 pages, 4196 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics Pollution as an Invisible Potential Threat to Food Safety and Security, Policy Challenges and the Way Forward

by Sunusi Usman, Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis, Khozirah Shaari, Mohammad Noor Azmai Amal, Mohd Zamri Saad, Nurulfiza Mat Isa, Muhammad Farhan Nazarudin, Syaizwan Zahmir Zulkifli, Jumria Sutra and Musa Adamu Ibrahim

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(24), 9591; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17249591 - 21 Dec 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 11708

Abstract

Technological advances, coupled with increasing demands by consumers, have led to a drastic increase in plastic production. After serving their purposes, these plastics reach our water bodies as their destination and become ingested by aquatic organisms. This ubiquitous phenomenon has exposed humans to microplastics mostly through the consumption of sea food. This has led the World Health Organization (WHO) to make an urgent call for the assessment of environmental pollution due to microplastics and its effect on human health. This review summarizes studies between 1999 and 2020 in relation to microplastics in aquatic ecosystems and human food products, their potential toxic effects as elicited in animal studies, and policies on their use and disposal. There is a paucity of information on the toxicity mechanisms of microplastics in animal studies, and despite their documented presence in food products, no policy has been in place so far, to monitor and regulates microplastics in commercial foods meant for human consumption. Although there are policies and regulations with respect to plastics, these are only in a few countries and in most instances are not fully implemented due to socioeconomic reasons, so they do not address the problem across the entire life cycle of plastics from production to disposal. More animal research to elucidate pathways and early biomarkers of microplastic toxicity that can easily be detected in humans is needed. This is to create awareness and influence policies that will address this neglected threat to food safety and security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants and Their Risk Assessment)

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23 pages, 818 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics in Food: A Review on Analytical Methods and Challenges

by Jung-Hwan Kwon, Jin-Woo Kim, Thanh Dat Pham, Abhrajyoti Tarafdar, Soonki Hong, Sa-Ho Chun, Sang-Hwa Lee, Da-Young Kang, Ju-Yang Kim, Su-Bin Kim and Jaehak Jung

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(18), 6710; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17186710 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 83 | Viewed by 14773

Abstract

Human exposure to microplastics contained in food has become a significant concern owing to the increasing accumulation of microplastics in the environment. In this paper, we summarize the presence of microplastics in food and the analytical methods used for isolation and identification of microplastics. Although a large number of studies on seafood such as fish and shellfish exist, estimating the overall human exposure to microplastics via food consumption is difficult owing to the lack of studies on other food items. Analytical methods still need to be optimized for appropriate recovery of microplastics in various food matrices, rendering a quantitative comparison of different studies challenging. In addition, microplastics could be added or removed from ingredients during processing or cooking. Thus, research on processed food is crucial to estimate the contribution of food to overall human microplastic consumption and to mitigate this exposure in the future. Full article

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