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Child Labour, Working Children and Health

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Children's Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 April 2022) | Viewed by 46134

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nicola Suyin Pocock

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Guest Editor

Gender Violence & Health Centre, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK
Interests: migration; child labour; labour exploitation; early childhood development; evidence synthesis methods

Prof. Dr. Anaclaudia Gastal Fassa

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Social Medicine, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas 96030-000, Brazil
Interests: child labour; occupational safety & health; sexual & reproductive health

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Worldwide, there are an estimated 218 million working children, of whom 152 million are child labourers. Of these children, 72.5 million are in hazardous work, defined in global estimates as children working in hazardous industries, hazardous occupations or working beyond the set thresholds of hours for their age group (ILO, 2017). According to recent systematic reviews, child labour is associated with adverse physical health outcomes, ranging from poor nutritional status, a higher prevalence of injuries, occupational illness and infectious diseases (Shendell et al., 2016; Batomen Kuimi et al., 2018; Ibrahim et al., 2019). Child labour is also associated with poor mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety and low self-esteem (Sturrock and Hodes, 2016). Moreover, the developmental stages of adolescence must be considered when examining the interaction with Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) risks among young workers (Sámano-Ríos et al., 2019). Developmental characteristics include biological shifts to more nocturnal wakefulness among adolescents, who may be less alert during long work shifts (Sámano-Ríos et al., 2019). Adolescents may feel a proclivity for thrill seeking and increased reactivity to stressors, alongside a lack of understanding and awareness of OSH risks, until cognitive shifts take place via neuromaturation (ibid). Currently, few studies account for these unique developmental characteristics among young workers.

While studies indicate the burden of ill health among working children and adolescents, the current evidence base is of poor methodological quality. Sampling methods are often opportunistic or purposive, with just a third of studies in one review including a control group and adjusting for potential confounders (Batomen Kuimi et al., 2018). Furthermore, methods to measure health outcomes among working children are rarely documented, making it difficult to assess whether methods are appropriate for use with working children (Pocock et al., 2020). Methodological weaknesses limit the causal interpretation of associations reported in existing studies.

This Special Issue in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is devoted to recent findings on “Child Labour, Working Children and Health”. Following the first special issue on these children a decade ago (Miller, 2010), this Issue will make a substantial contribution to the measurement of health outcomes among child labourers and working children. We particularly welcome submissions that focus on the following, under-studied topics and regions:

Child domestic workers;
Child labourers and working children in Africa and China;
Psychosocial health of child labourers/working children;
Long-term health impacts of child labour into adulthood;
Evaluations of interventions for current working youth;
Workplace violence measurement among child labourers/working children;
Occupational health risks and outcomes measurement among child labourers/working children;
Empirical studies that explore thresholds at which particular tasks become hazardous for health;
Empirical studies that include control groups of non-working children;
Validation studies of outcome measures used with child labourers/working children.

Papers may be methodological or subject matter specific. Studies may involve primary or secondary quantitative or qualitative data. We also welcome systematic and scoping reviews on these topics.

We look forward to receiving your submission.

References

Batomen Kuimi, B. L. et al. Child labour and health: a systematic review. International Journal of Public Health 2018, 63, 663–672. doi:10.1007/s00038-018-1075-9.
Ibrahim, A. et al. Child labor and health: a systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Public Health (Oxford, England) 2019, 41, 18–26. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdy018.
ILO. Global Estimates of Child Labour: Results and trends, 2012-2016. Report. ILO. 2017. Available online: http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_575499/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on 1 October 2018).
Miller, M. E. Child labor and protecting young workers around the world. An introduction to this issue. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 2010, 16, 103–112. doi:10.1179/107735210799160435.
Pocock, N. S. et al. Measurement tools for occupational safety and health and workplace violence among working children: rapid review protocol. 2020. Available online: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=194325.
Sámano-Ríos, M. L. et al. Occupational safety and health interventions to protect young workers from hazardous work—A scoping review. Safety Science 2019, 113, 389–403. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2018.11.024.
Shendell, D. G. et al. Exposures resulting in safety and health concerns for child laborers in less developed countries. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2016, doi:10.1155/2016/3985498.
Sturrock, S. and Hodes, M. Child labour in low- and middle-income countries and its consequences for mental health: a systematic literature review of epidemiologic studies. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 2016, 25, 1273–1286. doi:10.1007/s00787-016-0864-z.

Dr. Nicola Suyin Pocock
Prof. Dr. Anaclaudia Gastal Fassa
Guest Editors

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Keywords

child labour
working children
young workers
occupational safety and health

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Street Children in Iran: What Are Their Living and Working Conditions? Findings from a Survey in Six Major Cities

by Meroe Vameghi, Payam Roshanfekr, Gholamreza Ghaedamini Harouni, Marzieh Takaffoli and Giti Bahrami

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(7), 5271; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph20075271 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2188

Abstract

Street children are among the most marginalized children, globally, who experience severe violations of their rights and face multiple deprivations. This study aimed to describe street children’s characteristics and working conditions in Iran. Method: This cross-sectional rapid survey was conducted from March to May 2017 in six major cities in Iran. The sample group consisted of Iranian and non-Iranian girls and boys, aged 10 to 18, who worked on the streets for at least one month prior to the survey. Time–location based sampling was used. A total of 856 Children were randomly selected from 464 venues, including corners of streets, parks, metro gates, bus stations, shopping malls, and shopping centers frequented by street children. Results: Findings showed that 90% of participants were boys, 60% were between 10 and 14 years old, almost 50% attended school, 12% were illiterate, and 32% had quit school. Children of Afghan nationality comprised 54% of the study participants, and the rest were Iranian. Of all participants, 85% resided with family or relatives. Most children (75.5%) worked more than 5 h daily, and vending (71.2%) and waste picking (16.1%) were common activities. Street children suffered, mainly, from harsh weather (22.7%), insults and beatings of everyday people (21%), starvation (20.7%), and police repression (15.4%). More than half of the study participants were not involved in intervention programs, and just 7% of them had attended any health education programs. Conclusion: Street children reported little to no service use, which may contribute to poor health. Street children require immediate attention to improve their wellbeing. Decision-makers and academicians should collaborate on intervention development research to design appropriate health and social interventions targeted at street children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

19 pages, 1457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Epidemiology of Young People’s Work and Experiences of Violence in Nine Countries: Evidence from the Violence against Children Surveys

by Amiya Bhatia, Maryam Parvez, Jodie Pearlman, Fred Kasalirwe, Ligia Kiss, Agnes Kyamulabi, Eddy J. Walakira, Karen Devries and Clare Tanton

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(24), 16936; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph192416936 - 16 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1632

Abstract

Globally, 497 million young people (15–24 years) are in the labour force. The current research on work and violence indicates reciprocal links across the life course. This study draws on data from 35,723 young people aged 13–24 years in the Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS) in nine countries to describe the epidemiology of work in order to explore associations between (1) current work and violence and (2) childhood violence and work in a hazardous site in young adulthood. The prevalence of past-year work among 13–24-year-olds was highest in Malawi: 82.4% among young men and 79.7% among young women. In most countries, young women were more likely to be working in family or domestic dwellings (range: 23.5–60.6%) compared to men (range: 8.0–39.0%), while men were more likely to be working on a farm. Work in a hazardous site was higher among young men compared to women in every country. Among children aged 13–17 years, we found significant positive associations between past-year work and violence among girls in three countries (aORs between 2.14 and 3.07) and boys in five countries (aORs 1.52 to 3.06). Among young people aged 18–24 years, we found significant positive associations among young women in five countries (aORs 1.46 to 2.61) and among young men in one country (aOR 2.62). Associations between childhood violence and past-year work in a hazardous site among 18–24-year-olds were significant in one country among girls and in three countries among boys. Continued efforts are needed to prevent hazardous work, improve work environments, and integrate violence prevention efforts into workplaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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20 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Child Labor and Psychosocial Wellbeing: Findings from Ethiopia

by Cécile Fanton d’Andon, Claire Greene, Catherine Pellenq, Tesfahun Melese Yilma, Muriel Champy, Mark Canavera and Chiara Pasquini

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(13), 7938; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19137938 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2671

Abstract

For children who work, there has been little research into the intricate relationship between their home lives and their work lives and the implications that this relationship might hold for their psychosocial development and functioning. This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Amhara region, Ethiopia, between March and April 2020 on a sample of 1311 working children with the aim, in part, of exploring ways in which various dimensions of children’s psychological wellbeing are influenced by their working conditions and their family contexts. In addition to collecting data on some personal traits, family relationships, home environments, and detailed occupational characteristics, we gathered information on psychosocial wellbeing using 22 items from the Instrument for the Psychosocial Assessment of Working Children (IPAC). Exploratory factor analysis enabled us to identify five factors characterizing the dimensions of psychosocial wellbeing: work-related self-esteem, work-related stress, workplace supervision, emotional and somatic wellbeing, and self-determination. Linear regressions of these factors were then conducted on social, occupational, and environmental variables. We found that all dimensions of psychosocial wellbeing were significantly associated with the children’s working conditions. Of particular interest, work-related dimensions of wellbeing, such as stress, self-esteem, and supervision, were significantly associated with the characteristics of the home and family environment. These findings illustrate that work and working conditions must be considered jointly, along with family life and home environments, as factors in both environments affect working children’s socioemotional development and wellbeing. They also strengthen the call for a systemic approach to protecting children involved in child labor, in which families are central to all discussions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

18 pages, 655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Child Domestic Workers Worse Off than Their Peers? Comparing Children in Domestic Work, Child Marriage, and Kinship Care with Biological Children of Household Heads: Evidence from Zimbabwe

by Ronald Musizvingoza, Jonathan Blagbrough and Nicola Suyin Pocock

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(12), 7405; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19127405 - 16 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3301

Abstract

Child domestic work is a hidden form of child labour driven by poverty and social norms. However, little is known about the situations of child domestic workers. This study aims to describe and analyse gender-specific working conditions, health, and educational outcomes among hidden child domestic workers (CDWs) living in third-party homes relative to married children, biological children, and other children in kinship care. Data from the 2019 Zimbabwe Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) were analysed. Descriptive statistics and bivariable logistic regression were used to describe frequency and estimated prevalence. Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) were used to identify exposures and inform the selection of covariates. Multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to estimate the effect of each exposure variable. The prevalence of CDWs was 1.5% and CDWs were mainly girls and living in much wealthier households with more educated household heads while married girls were living in much poorer households. When compared among girls themselves, being a CDW was significantly associated with having a functional disability, while married girls were more frequently engaged in hazardous working conditions. We provide the first intersectional analysis comparing work, violence, and health outcomes among CDWs, married children and other children. Child protection measures are needed to safeguard children in domestic work and marriages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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11 pages, 1365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Education, Age and Gender: Critical Factors in Determining Interventions for Child Brick Workers in Pakistan and Afghanistan

by Catherine Pellenq, Laurent Lima and Susan Gunn

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(11), 6797; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19116797 - 02 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1811

Abstract

Working in factories fashioning bricks by hand seems the epitome of hazardous child labor. Yet, efforts to remove children from this work have shown little success; impoverished families balance the value of their children’s contribution against the risks they see. Unfortunately, psychosocial impacts are often not visible, and are rarely taken into consideration when designing interventions. A comprehensive occupational health study of children working in brick factories included a module on psychosocial risks and impacts. This analysis reports on the Pakistan and Afghanistan portion of the study which was administered to 450 child brick workers and 486 controls, aged 11–17. Factorial ANOVAs confirmed that working in brick factories was the strongest predictor of respondent’s psychosocial health. However, they also identified subgroups of children that escape this prediction. Older girls, for example, actually felt better when working, compared with staying at home. Schooling had positive associations, especially in younger boys and adolescent girls. In fact, the results of this study showed that those who are at greatest psychosocial risk were girls who do not go to school. These findings underscore the importance of assessing psychosocial impacts and tailoring policy and interventions to specific gender and age categories of young workers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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17 pages, 719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Child Labor in Family Tobacco Farms in Southern Brazil: Occupational Exposure and Related Health Problems

by Anaclaudia Gastal Fassa, Neice Muller Xavier Faria, Ana Laura Sica Cruzeiro Szortyka, Rodrigo Dalke Meucci, Nadia Spada Fiori and Maitê Peres de Carvalho

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(22), 12255; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182212255 - 22 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2977

Abstract

Tobacco farming is considered Hazardous Child Labor in Brazil. This study examined the work of children and adolescents in tobacco farming, characterizing the level of urinary cotinine and the occurrence of Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS), pesticide poisoning, respiratory symptoms, and musculoskeletal disorders. A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted with a random sample of tobacco growers under 18 years old in Southern Brazil. Ninety-nine young people were interviewed at 79 family farms. The majority began working in agriculture before they were 14 and worked harvesting and tying hands of tobacco; 60% were 16 or 17 years old, and 51.5% were male. During their lifetime, 24.5% reported GTS, and 3% reported pesticide poisoning. In the previous year, 29.3% reported low back pain, 6.1% wheezing, and 16.2% coughing without having a cold. Half of the 12 young people evaluated had over 100 ng/mL of urinary cotinine. The study indicates that child laborers do various activities and present a high prevalence of health problems. Health workers should be trained to identify child laborers and their impacts on health. Full-time farm schools could provide knowledge about sustainable agricultural production, reducing the rates of age-grade mismatch, without taking young people away from rural areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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Review

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24 pages, 1390 KiB

Open AccessReview

Occupational Health Sufferings of Child Waste Workers in South Asia: A Scoping Review

by Hasna Hena Sara, Anisur Rahman Bayazid and Zahidul Quayyum

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8628; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19148628 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Background: Child labor remains a health hazard, affecting the mental, physical, and emotional well-being of children. Children engage in waste management through various channels while constantly working to create a healthier and cleaner environment and exposing themselves to numerous health risks. Thus, this scoping review aims to explore the occupational injuries, health hazards, and sufferings of child waste workers in South Asia. Methods: Following the PRISMA guidelines, a scoping review of available relevant scientific literature was completed to comprehensively analyze the extent of child waste workers’ health suffering. Online databases PubMed, SCOPUS, and Google Scholar were searched for predefined criteria. Collected references were screened with Rayyan web tools and Endnote. Based on study inclusion criteria, a thematic synthesis was performed on the findings of 12 articles. Results: This study’s findings provided deep insights into the most prevalent occupational health sufferings among child waste workers, as depicted in the available literature. Prevalence of injuries like cuts and wounds was found predominant. These injuries are caused by the collection, transportation, dumping, and recycling of waste. Respiratory, musculoskeletal, and skin diseases are more prevalent among child waste worker children than in control groups of the same socioeconomic backgrounds. A higher chance of genetic or neuro-degenerative disorder and DNA mutation indicates a long-term effect on the children working in the waste management sector. Psychological sufferings were the least explored, although very common among child laborers. MPD (Minor Psychiatric Disorder) was very high among waste workers. Regarding healthcare-seeking behavior, traditional methods are preferable rather than formal health facilities. More research is required in this area due to a lack of evidence on the health problems of child waste workers. Conclusions: Occupational hazards were myriad among child waste workers. Though many children are involved in waste management, they are typically excluded from mainstream child protection and support systems, making them more exposed to occupational harassment and injury. Policymakers should design specific programs for these vulnerable groups considering the issues below, i.e., provide protective equipment such as facemasks, gloves, footwear, and rag sorting tools to safeguard them from physical damage and illness, ensure access to health care, to school, and provide basic nutrients to them. Furthermore, the authorities should think of alternative income generating programs for these groups of children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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21 pages, 947 KiB

Open AccessReview

Social Norms and Family Child Labor: A Systematic Literature Review

by Alhassan Abdullah, Inès Huynh, Clifton R. Emery and Lucy P. Jordan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 4082; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19074082 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6360

Abstract

Background. Research has established the family as the predominant context for child labor practices. Decisions to involve children in child labor within the family or by a family member (herein family child labor) is strongly motivated by cultural beliefs that normalize child labor. This systematic review sought to synthesize evidence on the social norms that support child labor practices, and the normative interpretation of international child labor legislation/standards. Methods. We followed the PRISMA procedure for systematic review by reviewing empirical articles published between 2000 to 2021 and contained within the four key databases: Scopus, ISI Web of Sciences, PubMed and Embase. Findings from 13 articles that met the inclusion criteria were analyzed thematically. Results. The review included studies from three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. Gender norms, informal apprenticeship norm, norms on succession and sustenance as well as obedience, were key social norms that influenced child labor practices in the family. Parents’ decision to involve children in child labor was strongly influenced by the collective acceptance of some occupations (e.g., cocoa farming and fishing) as family occupations, which need to be preserved, undertaken and passed on to children. Child rights and the UNCRC principle of children’s participation were considered foreign to most non-western countries and interpreted as contravention to the cherished social norm of obedience. The findings underlie the link between social norms and the common social values of resilience, hard work, and respect. Conclusion. The results provide foundations and target to develop normative change intervention programs to re-orient the negative interpretations of common social values and provide alternative pathways that prevent child labor within the social context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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Other

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33 pages, 611 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Child Domestic Work, Violence, and Health Outcomes: A Rapid Systematic Review

by Aye Myat Thi, Cathy Zimmerman, Nicola S. Pocock, Clara W. Chan and Meghna Ranganathan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 427; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19010427 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4188

Abstract

This rapid systematic review describes violence and health outcomes among child domestic workers (CDWs) taken from 17 studies conducted in low- and middle-income countries. Our analysis estimated the median reported rates of violence in CDWs aged 5–17-year-olds to be 56.2% (emotional; range: 13–92%), 18.9% (physical; range: 1.7–71.4%), and 2.2% (sexual; range: 0–62%). Both boys and girls reported emotional abuse and sexual violence with emotional abuse being the most common. In Ethiopia and India, violence was associated with severe physical injuries and sexual insecurity among a third to half of CDWs. CDWs in India and Togo reported lower levels of psycho-social well-being than controls. In India, physical punishment was correlated with poor psycho-social well-being of CDWs [OR: 3.6; 95% CI: 3.2–4; p < 0.0001]. Across the studies, between 7% and 68% of CDWs reported work-related illness and injuries, and one third to half had received no medical treatment. On average, children worked between 9 and 15 h per day with no rest days. Findings highlight that many CDWs are exposed to abuse and other health hazards but that conditions vary substantially by context. Because of the often-hidden nature of child domestic work, future initiatives will need to be specifically designed to reach children in private households. Young workers will also benefit from strategies to change social norms around the value and vulnerability of children in domestic work and the long-term implications of harm during childhood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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13 pages, 926 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Evaluations of Interventions with Child Domestic Workers: A Rapid Systematic Review

by Nambusi Kyegombe, Nicola S. Pocock, Clara W. Chan, Jonathan Blagbrough and Cathy Zimmerman

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10084; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph181910084 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2539

Abstract

Little is known about interventions to support the education, skills training, and health of female child domestic workers (CDWs). This rapid systematic literature review followed PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO registration: CRD42019148702) and summarises peer-reviewed and grey literature on health, education, and economic interventions for CDWs and interventions targeting employers. We searched six electronic databases and purposively searched grey literature. We included observational studies, which included an intervention, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies. Two reviewers independently screened articles. Data were extracted on intervention description, inputs, activities, type of evaluation, outcomes, effect size or impact where applicable, limitations, and ethical considerations. All studies were quality appraised. We identified eight papers from five studies. Six papers reported on health-related outcomes, two on education-related outcomes, and three on economic outcomes. No evaluations of employer-related interventions were identified. Only one intervention specifically targeted CDWs. Others included CDWs in their sample but did not disaggregate data for CDWs. Findings suggest that the evaluated interventions had a limited impact on CDW’s health, education, and economic outcomes. While it appears feasible to reach CDWs with outreach interventions, further work is needed to improve the consistency of their effectiveness and their ability to improve CDWs’ current and future prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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34 pages, 4341 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Health Impacts of Hazardous Chemical Exposures among Child Labourers in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

by Natasha B. Scott and Nicola S. Pocock

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(10), 5496; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18105496 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6847

Abstract

Of 218 million working children worldwide, many are suspected to be exposed to hazardous chemicals. This review aims to synthesize reported evidence over the last two decades on chemical exposure and adverse health consequences in children labourers in low- and middle-income Countries (LMIC). Included studies investigated health outcomes related to chemical exposures among child labourers aged 5–18 in LMIC. Twenty-three papers were selected for review, focusing on pesticides (n = 5), solvents (n = 3), metals (n = 13) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (n = 2). Adverse health effects identified among child labourers included abnormal biomarkers, for example elevated blood and urine chemical concentrations, neurobehavioural deficits and neurological symptoms, mental health issues, oxidative stress and DNA damage, poor growth, asthma, and hypothyroidism. Workplace exposure to chemicals has pernicious health effects on child labourers. Large research gaps exist, in particular for long-term health impacts through chronic conditions and diseases with long latencies. A sizeable disease burden in later life is likely to be directly attributable to chemicals exposures. We urge national and international agencies concerned with child labour and occupational health, to prioritize research and interventions aiming to reduce noxious chemical exposures in workplaces where children are likely to be present. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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20 pages, 1620 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Suitability of Measurement Tools for Assessing the Prevalence of Child Domestic Work: A Rapid Systematic Review

by Nicola S. Pocock, Clara W. Chan and Cathy Zimmerman

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2357; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18052357 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3475

Abstract

Child domestic work (CDW) is a hidden form of child labour. Globally, there were an estimated 17.2 million CDWs aged 5–17 in 2012, but there has been little critical analysis of methods and survey instruments used to capture prevalence of CDW. This rapid systematic review identified and critically reviewed the measurement tools used to estimate CDWs in Low- and Middle-Income Countries, following PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO registration: CRD42019148702). Fourteen studies were included. In nationally representative surveys, CDW prevalence ranged from 17% among 13–24-year-old females in Haiti to 2% of children aged 10–17 in Brazil. Two good quality studies and one good quality measurement tool were identified. CDW prevalence was assessed using occupation-based methods (n = 9/14), household roster (n = 7) and industry methods (n = 4). Six studies combined approaches. Four studies included task-based questions; one study used this method to formally calculate prevalence. The task-based study estimated 30,000 more CDWs compared to other methods. CDWs are probably being undercounted, based on current standard measurement approaches. We recommend use of more sensitive, task-based methods for inclusion in household surveys. The cognitive and pilot testing of newly developed task-based questions is essential to ensure comprehension. In analyses, researchers should consider CDWs who may be disguised as distant or non-relatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Child Labour, Working Children and Health)

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