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Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Health Economics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 44639

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Dirga Lamichhane

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Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, School of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea
Interests: air pollution; environmental and occupational health; nutritional epidemiology; gene and environment interactions; psychosocial and industrial health; health economics; socioeconomic vulnerability to natural disaster
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The spread of coronavirus disease 2019 ( COVID-19), which started at the end of 2019, has evolved as a global pandemic. To contain COVID-19 diffusion, many countries have implemented lockdowns and other restrictions, including enforcing strict quarantines, prohibiting large-scale private and public gatherings, encouraging social distancing, and imposing a curfew. These control measures put in place to protect people from COVID-19 have had a significant impact on environment, health, and economy. This pandemic is likely to have many life-altering, short- and long-term effects related to health. Researchers are continuing to examine the cause and consequences of the current pandemic. Although this pandemic has led to the enhancement of the health system in many countries, the spread of COVID-19 and related lockdown measures have imposed a substantial economic burden on healthcare systems. This includes costs associated with the medical treatment of COVID-19 patients and with outbreak control. This pandemic has put some health systems under immense pressure, limiting their capacity to deal with routine health issues and compounding the problem.

While the costs of enforcing these control measures are enormous, the ongoing pandemic may have some indirect positive impacts. Among them, locking down cities has brought a sudden drop in air pollution and carbon emissions. These declines are mainly due to the close-down of transport, constructional works, and industrial activities. On the other hand, changes in activity patterns, with urban residents spending more time at home, could increase the domestic emission of air pollutants. Some researchers have shown that prolonged exposure to high levels of air pollution may increase the vulnerability to and mortality rates of COVID-19. However, the roles of air pollution and aerosols in the spread of coronavirus-2 and in the increase of COVID-19 mortality rates are still under debate within the scientific community.

This Special Issue aims to explore the environmental, health, and economic dimensions of the effect of COVID-19, considering the multiple interactions between atmospheric emissions, outdoor and indoor air quality, and economic conditions. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following: modeling disease transmission using economic methods; impact of COVID-19 on health and economic outcomes; impact of COVID-19 control measure on air quality; transmission modes of COVID-19 virus through environmental media; relationships between air pollution and COVID-19; environmental exposure and health impact assessment; lockdown impacts on waste management.

Dr. Dirga Lamichhane
Guest Editor

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Keywords

COVID-19
lockdown
air pollution
air quality
environmental exposures
health economic impact

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 2795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

District-Level Risk Factors for COVID-19 Incidence and Mortality in Nepal

by Dirga Kumar Lamichhane, Sabina Shrestha and Hwan-Cheol Kim

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(5), 2659; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19052659 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1907

Abstract

The recent global pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting the entire population of Nepal, and the outcome of the epidemic varies from place to place. A district-level analysis was conducted to identify socio-demographic risk factors that drive the large variations in COVID-19 mortality and related health outcomes, as of 22 January 2021. Data on COVID-19 extracted from relevant reports and websites of the Ministry of Health and Population of Nepal, and the National Population and Housing Census and the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey were the main data sources for the district-level socio-demographic characteristics. We calculated the COVID-19 incidence, recovered cases, and deaths per 100,000 population, then estimated the associations with the risk factors using regression models. COVID-19 outcomes were positively associated with population density. A higher incidence of COVID-19 was associated with districts with a higher percentage of overcrowded households and without access to handwashing facilities. Adult literacy rate was negatively associated with the COVID-19 incidence. Increased mortality was significantly associated with a higher obesity prevalence in women and a higher smoking prevalence in men. Access to health care facilities reduced mortality. Population density was the most important driver behind the large variations in COVID-19 outcomes. This study identifies critical risk factors of COVID-19 outcomes, including population density, crowding, education, and hand hygiene, and these factors should be considered to address inequities in the burden of COVID-19 across districts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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19 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Financial Factors and Psychological Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland

by Katarzyna Sekścińska, Agata Trzcińska, Daniel Pankowski, Ewa Pisula and Kinga Wytrychiewicz-Pankowska

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(3), 1798; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19031798 - 05 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1635

Abstract

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many factors have simultaneously affected people’s psychological distress (PD). The most commonly studied types of factors have been those relating to health risks involving SARS-CoV-2 infection and sociodemographic factors. However, financial changes at both the national and global levels and these changes’ influences on people’s personal finances constitute another group of factors with the potential to cause symptoms of anxiety and depression. A correlation study of 1135 working adults in Poland was conducted to analyze the roles of a wide range of financial variables in explaining the extent of people’s PD during the pandemic. Three groups of financial factors predicted PD over and above sociodemographic variables and COVID-19 health-related factors: a person’s objective financial situation, their subjective financial situation, and their individual financial disposition, the last of these being the most important. The present study adds to the current state of knowledge by showing that financial variables explain a significant portion of variance in PD over and above sociodemographic and COVID-19 health-related factors. Moreover, the study also identified individual financial variables that were capable of predicting people’s psychological distress during the pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

15 pages, 594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ESG Performance and Stock Price Volatility in Public Health Crisis: Evidence from COVID-19 Pandemic

by Dongyi Zhou and Rui Zhou

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 202; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19010202 - 25 Dec 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 9014

Abstract

Unlike traditional financial crises, COVID-19 is a global public health crisis with a significant negative impact on the global economy. Meanwhile, the stock market has been hit hard, and corporate share prices have become more volatile. However, the stock prices of some enterprises with good performance of ESG (Environment, Social, and Governance) are relatively stable in the epidemic. This paper selects ESG rating data from MSCI (Morgan Stanley Capital International) with better differentiation, adopts multiple regression and dummy variables, and adopts the Differences-in-Differences (DID)model with the help of COVID-19, an exogenous event. Empirical test the impact of ESG performance on the company’s stock price fluctuations. The results show that the stock price volatility of companies with good ESG performance is lower than that of companies with poor performance. Second, COVID-19 exacerbates volatility in company stock prices, but the increase in stock price volatility of companies with good ESG performance is small. That is, good ESG performance helps reduce the increase in stock price volatility due to COVID-19 shock, and plays a role in enhancing “resilience” and stabilizing stock prices. This paper provides new empirical evidence for the study of ESG performance and corporate stock price volatility, and puts forward relevant policy recommendations for enterprises and government departments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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23 pages, 3679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impacts of COVID-19 on China’s Economy and Energy in the Context of Trade Protectionism

by Feng Wang and Min Wu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(23), 12768; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182312768 - 03 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3801

Abstract

In the current context of rising trade protectionism, deeply understanding the impacts of COVID-19 on economy and energy has important practical significance for China to cope with external shocks in an uncertain environment and enhance economic resilience. By constructing an integrated economic and energy input-output model including the COVID-19 shock, this paper assesses the impacts of COVID-19 on China’s macro-economy and energy consumption in the context of trade protectionism. The results are shown as follows. First, in the context of protectionism, the outbreak of COVID-19 in China would cause a 2.2–3.09% drop in China’s GDP and a 1.56–2.48% drop in energy consumption, while adverse spillovers from global spread of COVID-19 would reduce its GDP by 2.27–3.28% and energy consumption by 2.48–3.49%. Second, the negative impacts of domestic outbreak on China’s construction, non-metallic mineral products, and services would be on average 1.29% higher than those on other industries, while the impacts of global spread of COVID-19 on export-oriented industries such as textiles and wearing apparel would be on average 1.23% higher than other industries. Third, the effects of two wave of the pandemic on China’s fossil energy consumption would be on average 1.44% and 0.93% higher than non-fossil energy consumption, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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16 pages, 3097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

COVID-19 Prevalence among Czech Dentists

by Jan Schmidt, Vojtech Perina, Jana Treglerova, Nela Pilbauerova, Jakub Suchanek and Roman Smucler

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(23), 12488; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182312488 - 27 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2140

Abstract

This work evaluates the prevalence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), a viral infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), among members of the Czech Dental Chamber. The assessment was based on an online questionnaire filled out by 2716 participants, representing 24.3% of all chamber members. Overall, 25.4% of the participants admitted they were diagnosed with COVID-19 by 30 June 2021, with no statistical differences between the sexes. While in the age groups under 50 the reported prevalence was around 30%, with increasing age, it gradually decreased to 15.2% in the group over 70 years. The work environment was identified as a place of contagion by 38.4% of the respondents. The total COVID-19 PCR-verified positivity was 13.9%, revealing a statistically lower prevalence (p = 0.0180) compared with the Czech general population, in which the COVID-19 PCR-verified positivity was ~15.6% (fourth highest rank in the world). The total infection–hospitalization ratio (IHR) was 2.8%, and the median age group of hospitalized individuals was 60–70 years. For respondents older than 60 years, the IHR was 8.7%, and for those under 40 years, it was 0%. Of the respondents, 37.7% admitted that another team member was diagnosed with COVID-19, of which the most frequently mentioned profession was a nurse/dental assistant (81.2%). The results indicate that although the dentist profession is associated with a high occupational risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection, well-chosen antiepidemic measures adopted by dental professionals may outweigh it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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17 pages, 14825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Empirical Perception of Economic Resilience Responded to the COVID-19 Epidemic Outbreak in Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration, China: Characterization and Interaction

by Yaping Zhang, Jianjun Zhang, Ke Wang and Xia Wu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10532; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph181910532 - 07 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2687

Abstract

The COVID-19 has caused a serious impact on the global economy, and all countries are in a predicament of fighting the epidemic and recovering their economies. Aiming to discuss the impact of the COVID-19 on the economic resilience of urban agglomerations, the economic data of each quarter from June 2019 to September 2020 of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration are selected, and the economic development index (EDI) is calculated based on the entropy method. Combining the fundamental conditions of urban agglomerations and industrial policies during the COVID-19, urban economic resilience is discussed by the changing trend of the economic development index (EDI) and dividing into resistance and restoration. The results show that: (1) The economic development level of the urban agglomeration has been affected by the epidemic and has changed significantly. The change of endogenous power is the main cause of change; (2) During the outbreak of the COVID-19, the economic resilience of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration shows four different development types: high resistance and restoration, high resistance but low restoration, low resistance but high restoration, low resistance and restoration cities; (3) High resistance but low restoration, low resistance but high restoration, and low resistance and restoration cities influence each other, but the relationship between cities is mainly dependent; (4) The economic restoration within the urban agglomeration forms a synergy, which promotes the economic recovery and development of the urban agglomeration during the recovery period of the COVID-19. Urban agglomerations should enhance the combined effect of resistance and increase the impact of high resistance and restoration cities on surrounding cities in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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14 pages, 2832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of COVID-19 on Czech Dentistry: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Preliminary Study among Dentists in the Czech Republic

by Jan Schmidt, Eliska Waldova, Stepanka Balkova, Jakub Suchanek and Roman Smucler

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(17), 9121; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18179121 - 29 Aug 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2707

Abstract

This work evaluates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Czech dentistry from March 2020 to March 2021. The assessment was based on questionnaires filled out by 3674 Czech dentists representing 42.6% of practicing dentists in the country. During March–May, 2020 (the first COVID-19 wave), 90.7% of dental practices remained open; however, only 22.8% of the practices continued to operate with no changes, 46.5% had fewer patients, 21.4% treated only acute cases, and 3.8% were closed. During September 2020–May 2021 (the second wave of COVID-19), 96.1% of dental practices remained open, 60.8% operated with no changes, 34.5% had fewer patients, 0.8% treated only acute cases, and 0.5% were closed. The reasons leading to the closure of Czech dental practices during the whole pandemic were a shortage of personal protective equipment (50.5%), a COVID-19 outbreak in the workplace (24.5%), fear of a possible self-infection (24.0%), and quarantine (20.5%). The time range of Czech dental practices closure during the whole pandemic was: 1–2 weeks (49.9%), 2–4 weeks (21.2%), and >1 month (0.8%). The greatest professional difficulties of Czech dentists during the pandemic were crisis operating management (55%), health safety and hygiene concerns (21%), shortage of personal protective equipment (21%), and difficulty working with the protective equipment (15%). In addition, 47.3% of dentists also observed a declining interest in preventive dental care, and 16.9% of them observed worse oral care of patients. These results show that despite the lack of protective equipment, dental care was maintained throughout the pandemic. Additionally, the pandemic negatively affected the patients’ approach to dental care, indicating a deterioration in oral health as a possible delayed outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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11 pages, 5400 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the Lockdown Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Fine Particulate Matter (PM_2.5) Air Pollution: The Greek Paradigm

by Ourania S. Kotsiou, Georgios K. D. Saharidis, Georgios Kalantzis, Evangelos C. Fradelos and Konstantinos I. Gourgoulianis

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6748; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18136748 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2374

Abstract

Introduction: Responding to the coronavirus pandemic, Greece implemented the largest quarantine in its history. No data exist regarding its impact on PM_2.5 pollution. We aimed to assess PM_2.5 levels before, during, and after lockdown (7 March 2020–16 May 2020) in Volos, one of Greece’s most polluted industrialized cities, and compare PM_2.5 levels with those obtained during the same period last year. Meteorological conditions were examined as confounders. Methods: The study period was discriminated into three phases (pre-lockdown: 7 March–9 March, lockdown: 10 March–4 May, and post-lockdown period: 5 May–16 May). A wireless sensors network was used to collect PM_2.5, temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, and wind speed data every 2 s. Results: The lockdown resulted in a significant drop of PM_2.5 by 37.4% in 2020, compared to 2019 levels. The mean daily concentrations of PM_2.5 exceeded the WHO’s guideline value for 24-h mean levels of PM_2.5 35% of the study period. During the strictest lockdown (23 March to 4 May), the mean daily PM_2.5 levels exceeded the standard 41% of the time. The transition from the pre-lockdown period into lockdown or post-lockdown periods was associated with lower PM_2.5 concentrations. Conclusions: A reduction in the mean daily PM_2.5 concentration was found compared to 2019. Lockdown was not enough to avoid severe exceedances of air pollution in Volos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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16 pages, 630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Economic Burden of Influenza-Like Illness among Children, Chronic Disease Patients, and the Elderly in China: A National Cross-Sectional Survey

by Xiaozhen Lai, Hongguo Rong, Xiaochen Ma, Zhiyuan Hou, Shunping Li, Rize Jing, Haijun Zhang, Yun Lyu, Jiahao Wang, Huangyufei Feng, Zhibin Peng, Luzhao Feng and Hai Fang

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6277; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18126277 - 10 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2951

Abstract

Background: The disease burden of seasonal influenza is substantial in China, while there is still a lack of nationwide economic burden estimates. This study aims to examine influenza-like illness (ILI) prevalence, healthcare-seeking behaviors, economic impact of ILI, and its influencing factors among three priority groups during the 2018–19 influenza season. Methods: From August to October 2019, 6668 children’s caregivers, 1735 chronic disease patients, and 3849 elderly people were recruited from 10 provinces in China to participate in an on-site survey. The economic burden of ILI consisted of direct (medical or non-medical) and indirect burdens, and a two-part model was adopted to predict the influencing factors of total economic burden. Results: There were 45.73% children, 16.77% chronic disease patients, and 12.70% elderly people reporting ILI, and most participants chose outpatient service or over-the-counter (OTC) medication after ILI. The average economic burden was CNY 1647 (USD 237.2) for children, CNY 951 (USD 136.9) for chronic disease patients, and CNY 1796 (USD 258.6) for the elderly. Two-part regression showed that age, gender, whether the only child in the family, region, and household income were important predictors of ILI economic burden among children, while age, region, place of residence, basic health insurance, and household income were significant predictors of ILI economic burden among chronic disease patients and the elderly. Conclusions: A large economic burden of ILI was highlighted, especially among the elderly with less income and larger medical burdens, as well as children, with higher prevalence and higher self-payment ratio. It is important to adopt targeted interventions for high-risk groups, and this study can help national-level decision-making on the introduction of influenza vaccination as a public health project. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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18 pages, 588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Economic Role of Population Density during Pandemics—A Comparative Analysis of Saudi Arabia and China

by Nadia Yusuf and Lamia Saud Shesha

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(8), 4318; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18084318 - 19 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2332

Abstract

As a novel infection with relatively high contagiousness, the coronavirus disease emerged as the most pertinent threat to the global community in the twenty-first century. Due to Covid-19’s severe economic impacts, the establishment of reliable determining factors can help to alleviate future pandemics. While a population density is often cited as a major determinant of infectious cases and mortality rates, there are both proponents and opponents to this claim. In this framework, the study seeks to assess the role of population density as a predictor of Covid-19 cases and deaths in Saudi Arabia and China during the Covid-19 pandemic. With high infectivity and mortality being a definitive characteristic of overpopulated regions, the authors propose that Henry Kissinger’s population reduction theory can be applied as a control measure to control future pandemics and alleviate social concerns. If high-density Chinese regions are more susceptible to Covid-19 than low-density Saudi cities, the authors argue that Neo-Malthusian models can be used as a basis for reducing the impacts of the coronavirus disease on the economic growth in countries with low population density. However, the performed correlation analysis and simple linear regression produced controversial results with no clear connection between the three studied variables. By assessing population density as a determinant of health crises associated with multiple socio-economic threats and epidemiological concerns, the authors seek to reinvigorate the scholarly interest in Neo-Malthusian models as a long-term solution intended to mitigate future disasters. The authors recommend that future studies should explore additional confounding factors influencing the course and severity of infectious diseases in states with different population densities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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16 pages, 4381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Socioeconomic, Health, and Safety Data Explain the Spread of COVID-19 Outbreak on Brazilian Federative Units?

by Diego Galvan, Luciane Effting, Hágata Cremasco and Carlos Adam Conte-Junior

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(23), 8921; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17238921 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2571

Abstract

Infinite factors can influence the spread of COVID-19. Evaluating factors related to the spread of the disease is essential to point out measures that take effect. In this study, the influence of 14 variables was assessed together by Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) of the type Self-Organizing Maps (SOM), to verify the relationship between numbers of cases and deaths from COVID-19 in Brazilian states for 110 days. The SOM analysis showed that the variables that presented a more significant relationship with the numbers of cases and deaths by COVID-19 were influenza vaccine applied, Intensive Care Unit (ICU), ventilators, physicians, nurses, and the Human Development Index (HDI). In general, Brazilian states with the highest rates of influenza vaccine applied, ICU beds, ventilators, physicians, and nurses, per 100,000 inhabitants, had the lowest number of cases and deaths from COVID-19, while the states with the lowest rates were most affected by the disease. According to the SOM analysis, other variables such as Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), tests, drugs, and Federal funds, did not have as significant effect as expected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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Review

Jump to: Research

19 pages, 18042 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Potential Impact of Smog Spell on Humans’ Health Amid COVID-19 Rages

by Ammar Javed, Farheen Aamir, Umar Farooq Gohar, Hamid Mukhtar, Muhammad Zia-UI-Haq, Modhi O. Alotaibi, May Nasser Bin-Jumah, Romina Alina Marc (Vlaic) and Oana Lelia Pop

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(21), 11408; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182111408 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8119 | Correction

Abstract

Rapid and unchecked industrialization and the combustion of fossil fuels have engendered a state of fear in urban settlements. Smog is a visible form of air pollution that arises due to the over-emissions of some primary pollutants like volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrocarbons, SO₂, NO, and NO₂ which further react in the atmosphere and give rise to toxic and carcinogenic secondary smog components. Smog reduces the visibility on roads and results in road accidents and cancellation of flights. Uptake of primary and secondary pollutants of smog is responsible for several deleterious diseases of which respiratory disorders, cardiovascular dysfunction, neurological disorders, and cancer are discussed here. Children and pregnant women are more prone to the hazards of smog. The worsening menace of smog on one hand and occurrence of pandemic i.e., COVID-19 on the other may increase the mortality rate. But the implementation of lockdown during pandemics has favored the atmosphere in some ways, which will be highlighted in the article. On the whole, the focus of this article will be on the dubious relationship between smog and coronavirus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental, Health and Economic Conditions during the COVID-19 Pandemic)

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