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19 pages, 1683 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxygen Uptake Measurements and Rate of Perceived Exertion during a Marathon

by Véronique Billat, Luc Poinsard, Florent Palacin, Jean Renaud Pycke and Michael Maron

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(9), 5760; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19095760 - 09 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1943

Abstract

Although the marathon race has been democratized, it remains complex due to the famous “hitting the wall” phenomenon after the 25th km. To characterize this “wall” from a physiological and Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) perspective in recreational marathon runners, we report first [...] Read more.

Although the marathon race has been democratized, it remains complex due to the famous “hitting the wall” phenomenon after the 25th km. To characterize this “wall” from a physiological and Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) perspective in recreational marathon runners, we report first continuous breath-by-breath gas exchange measurements during an actual marathon race. In order to test the hypothesis that RPE could be a candidate for controlling the marathon pace, this study examined the relationship between RPE and the physiological variables time course throughout a marathon. Only the respiratory frequency and heart rate increased progressively during the race in all the runners, while the oxygen uptake and ventilatory rate followed different kinetics according the individuals. However, the indexation of the physiological parameters and speed by RPE showed the same decreased tendency for all the runners. In conclusion, these results suggest that running a marathon must be self-paced with the RPE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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19 pages, 438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Marathon Performance Depends on Pacing Oscillations between Non Symmetric Extreme Values

by Jean-Renaud Pycke and Véronique Billat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(4), 2463; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph19042463 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2389

Abstract

A marathon was recently run in less than 2 h by a man who ran the three fastest marathons ever recorded in a span of three years—Eliud Kipchoge—in the Tokyo Olympic games. Here, we demonstrate that the best marathons were run according to [...] Read more.

A marathon was recently run in less than 2 h by a man who ran the three fastest marathons ever recorded in a span of three years—Eliud Kipchoge—in the Tokyo Olympic games. Here, we demonstrate that the best marathons were run according to a pace distribution that is statistically not constant and with negative asymmetry. The concept of mirror race enables us to show that the sign of asymmetry is not due to sampling fluctuations. We show that marathon performance depends on pacing oscillations between extreme values, and that even the best marathons ever run differ and can be improved upon. The utilization of extreme values and oscillations allows for recovery and optimization of the complementary aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms. Our findings suggest new ways to approach the pacing for optimizing endurance performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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11 pages, 1517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peripheral Alterations Affect the Loss in Force after a Treadmill Downhill Run

by Nicola Giovanelli, Mirco Floreani, Filippo Vaccari and Stefano Lazzer

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8135; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18158135 - 31 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1483

Abstract

Downhill running has an important effect on performance in trail running competitions, but it is less studied than uphill running. The purpose of this study was to investigate the cardiorespiratory response during 15 min of downhill running (DR) and to evaluate the neuromuscular [...] Read more.

Downhill running has an important effect on performance in trail running competitions, but it is less studied than uphill running. The purpose of this study was to investigate the cardiorespiratory response during 15 min of downhill running (DR) and to evaluate the neuromuscular consequences in a group of trail runners. Before and after a 15-min DR trial (slope: −25%) at ~60% of maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O₂max), we evaluated maximal voluntary contraction torque (MVCt) and muscle contractility in a group of seventeen trail running athletes. Additionally, during the DR trial, we measured V̇O₂ and heart rate (HR). V̇O₂ and HR increased as a function of time, reaching +19.8 ± 15.9% (p < 0.001; ES: 0.49, medium) and +15.3 ± 9.9% (p < 0.001; ES: 0.55, large), respectively, in the last minute of DR. Post-exercise, the MVCt decreased (−22.2 ± 12.0%; p < 0.001; ES = 0.55, large) with respect to the pre-exercise value. All the parameters related to muscle contractility were impaired after DR: the torque evoked by a potentiated high frequency doublet decreased (−28.5 ± 12.7%; p < 0.001; ES: 0.61, large), as did the torque response from the single-pulse stimulation (St, −41.6 ± 13.6%; p < 0.001; ES: 0.70, large) and the M-wave (−11.8 ± 12.1%; p < 0.001; ES: 0.22, small). We found that after 15 min of DR, athletes had a decreased MVCt, which was ascribed mainly to peripheral rather than central alterations. Additionally, during low-intensity DR exercise, muscle fatigue and exercise-induced muscle damage may contribute to the development of O₂ and HR drift. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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11 pages, 1050 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pace Controlled by a Steady-State Physiological Variable Is Associated with Better Performance in a 3000 M Run

by Claire A. Molinari, Pierre Bresson, Florent Palacin and Véronique Billat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 7886; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18157886 - 26 Jul 2021

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Abstract

This paper aims to test the hypothesis whereby freely chosen running pace is less effective than pace controlled by a steady-state physiological variable. Methods Eight runners performed four maximum-effort 3000 m time trials on a running track. The first time trial (TT1) was [...] Read more.

This paper aims to test the hypothesis whereby freely chosen running pace is less effective than pace controlled by a steady-state physiological variable. Methods Eight runners performed four maximum-effort 3000 m time trials on a running track. The first time trial (TT1) was freely paced. In the following 3000 m time trials, the pace was controlled so that the average speed (TT2), average

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O₂ (TT3) or average HR (TT4) recorded in TT1 was maintained throughout the time trial. Results: Physiologically controlled pace was associated with a faster time (mean ± standard deviation: 740 ± 34 s for TT3 and 748 ± 33 s for TT4, vs. 854 ± 53 s for TT1; p < 0.01), a lower oxygen cost of running (200 ± 5 and 220 ± 3 vs. 310 ± 5 mLO₂·kg⁻¹·km⁻¹, respectively; p < 0.02), a lower cardiac cost (0.69 ± 0.08 and 0.69 ± 0.04 vs. 0.86 ± 0.09 beat·m⁻¹, respectively; p < 0.01), and a more positively skewed speed distribution (skewness: 1.7 ± 0.9 and 1.3 ± 0.6 vs. 0.2 ± 0.4, p < 0.05). Conclusion: Physiologically controlled pace (at the average

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O₂ or HR recorded in a freely paced run) was associated with a faster time, a more favorable speed distribution and lower levels of physiological strain, relative to freely chosen pace. This finding suggests that non-elite runners do not spontaneously choose the best pace strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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10 pages, 1033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Carbon Footprint of Marathon Runners: Training and Racing

by Laurent Castaignède, Frederic Veny, Johnathan Edwards and Véronique Billat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2769; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18052769 - 09 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4447

Abstract

Marathon running leaves a significant carbon footprint regarding CO₂ emissions; for example, 37 percent of New York Marathon participants travel internationally to New York. The aim of this study is to estimate the CO₂ footprint of a person training and competing [...] Read more.

Marathon running leaves a significant carbon footprint regarding CO₂ emissions; for example, 37 percent of New York Marathon participants travel internationally to New York. The aim of this study is to estimate the CO₂ footprint of a person training and competing in a marathon; we will also propose methods to minimize the CO₂ footprint because of transportation. In addition, we also examine the influence of food practices and hygiene on training and racing a marathon. Methods: We estimated the annual carbon footprint of one person taking part in a marathon. We considered all training, racing, and travelling (local and international) for one person (we are going to give him the first name of “Henri”), and then compared his CO₂ footprint with his colleagues playing tennis and soccer. The excess CO₂ footprint whilst running and for shoes, clothing, books, magazines, insurance, travel, hygiene, laundry, and resources for electronics and additional food consumed were calculated. For competitions, we estimated and compared the CO₂ emission from transportation to national vs. international marathon (New York). Results: We estimated that our runner emitted 4.3 tons of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e), including all greenhouse gases. A transatlantic flight to New York corresponded to 3.5 tons CO₂, which is 83% of the annual carbon footprint of an average French citizen which is about 11 tons CO₂e/year. This leads to a sudden 40% increase in Henri’s annual carbon footprint. Conclusions: By focusing on the additional carbon footprint from one year of marathon training and racing, and traveling locally versus internationally, this sport still has a potentially significant carbon footprint that runners and race organizers ought to consider. We wanted to answer a growing question of marathon runners who are wondering about the carbon footprint of their sports practice in following with a new environmentalist trend that considers not traveling anymore to participate in marathons and to stay local. However, the representativeness in the selection of calculation objectives is very low. There is no need for statistics since this study is a theoretical simulation of traditional training and competition practices of marathon runners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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11 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Maximal Time Spent at VO_2max from Sprint to the Marathon

by Claire A. Molinari, Johnathan Edwards and Véronique Billat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(24), 9250; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17249250 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4480

Abstract

Until recently, it was thought that maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) was elicited only in middle-distance events and not the sprint or marathon distances. We tested the hypothesis that VO_2max can be elicited in both the sprint and marathon distances and [...] Read more.

Until recently, it was thought that maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) was elicited only in middle-distance events and not the sprint or marathon distances. We tested the hypothesis that VO_2max can be elicited in both the sprint and marathon distances and that the fraction of time spent at VO_2max is not significantly different between distances. Methods: Seventy-eight well-trained males (mean [SD] age: 32 [13]; weight: 73 [9] kg; height: 1.80 [0.8] m) performed the University of Montreal Track Test using a portable respiratory gas sampling system to measure a baseline VO_2max. Each participant ran one or two different distances (100 m, 200 m, 800 m, 1500 m, 3000 m, 10 km or marathon) in which they are specialists. Results: VO_2max was elicited and sustained in all distances tested. The time limit (Tlim) at VO_2max on a relative scale of the total time (Tlim at VO_2max%Ttot) during the sprint, middle-distance, and 1500 m was not significantly different (p > 0.05). The relevant time spent at VO_2max was only a factor for performance in the 3000 m group, where the Tlim at VO_2max%Ttot was the highest (51.4 [18.3], r = 0.86, p = 0.003). Conclusions: By focusing on the solicitation of VO_2max, we demonstrated that the maintenance of VO_2max is possible in the sprint, middle, and marathon distances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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13 pages, 535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Post-Exercise Hypotension and Reduced Cardiac Baroreflex after Half-Marathon Run: In Men, but Not in Women

by Laurent Mourot, Alessandro Fornasiero, Mark Rakobowchuk, Laurie Isacco, Alfredo Brighenti, Federico Stella, Andrea Zignoli, Barbara Pellegrini, Cantor Tarperi and Federico Schena

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(17), 6337; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph17176337 - 31 Aug 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2957

Abstract

We examined whether trained women exhibit similar cardiovascular and cardiac baroreflex alterations after a half-marathon compared to men. Thirteen women (39.1 ± 9.3 years; 165 ± 6 cm; 58.2 ± 7.5 kg; maximal aerobic speed (MAS): 13.7 ± 2.2 km·h⁻¹) and [...] Read more.

We examined whether trained women exhibit similar cardiovascular and cardiac baroreflex alterations after a half-marathon compared to men. Thirteen women (39.1 ± 9.3 years; 165 ± 6 cm; 58.2 ± 7.5 kg; maximal aerobic speed (MAS): 13.7 ± 2.2 km·h⁻¹) and 12 men (45.7 ± 10.5 years; 178 ± 7 cm; 75.0 ± 8.3 kg; MAS: 15.8 ± 2.2 km·h⁻¹) ran an official half-marathon. Before and 60-min after, cardiovascular variables, parasympathetic (heart rate variability analysis) modulation and cardiac baroreflex function (transfer function and sequence analyses) were assessed during supine rest and a squat-stand test. Running performance was slower in women than in men (120 ± 19 vs. 104 ± 14 min for women and men, respectively). However, when expressed as a percentage of MAS, it was similar (78.1 ± 4.6% and 78.2 ± 5.4% of MAS for women and men, respectively). Before the run, women exhibited lower mean blood pressure (BP), cardiac output (CO) and stroke volume (SV) compared to men, together with higher parasympathetic indexes. After the race, parasympathetic indexes decreased in both sexes, but remained higher in women. Reduced SV, systolic BP and cardiac baroreflex were observed in men but not in women. Contrary to men, a competitive half-marathon did not trigger post-exercise hypotension and a reduced cardiac baroreflex in women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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Review

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18 pages, 1702 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects of Training on Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Triathletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Alicia Borrego-Sánchez, Maria Jesus Vinolo-Gil, Maria de-la-Casa-Almeida, Manuel Rodríguez-Huguet, María Jesús Casuso-Holgado and Rocío Martín-Valero

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(24), 13332; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph182413332 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3041

Abstract

Triathlon is an aerobic sport, which is commonly measured by maximal aerobic consumption (VO₂max). Objective: to analyze the changes produced in cardiorespiratory and physiological measurements during practice, which determine triathletes’ performance level. A systematic review and a meta-analysis based on PRISMA [...] Read more.

Triathlon is an aerobic sport, which is commonly measured by maximal aerobic consumption (VO₂max). Objective: to analyze the changes produced in cardiorespiratory and physiological measurements during practice, which determine triathletes’ performance level. A systematic review and a meta-analysis based on PRISMA protocol and registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020189076) was conducted. The research was performed using PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Embase, Dialnet, Web of Science (WOS) and MEDLINE databases during February and March 2020. Studies that measured cardiorespiratory variables in triathletes published in the last 10 years were included. Results: 713 articles were identified, with 25 studies selected for the systematic review and five articles for the meta-analysis. These articles concluded that the main cardiorespiratory variables that determine triathletes’ performance were modified depending on the triathlon segment performed and the athletes’ sex and age. The meta-analysis showed no conclusive results related to the effects of changes in VO₂max in triathletes’ performance [SMD = −0.21; 95%CI: (−0.84 to 0.43)]. Conclusions: cardiorespiratory fitness, in terms of VO₂max and ventilatory thresholds, is the strongest predictor of performance in triathlon. This response may be affected depending on the triathlon segment performed and the athlete’s age or sex, leading to both physiological and biomechanical alterations that affect competition performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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11 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessReview

Marathon-Induced Cardiac Fatigue: A Review over the Last Decade for the Preservation of the Athletes’ Health

by Damien Vitiello, Florent Palacin, Luc Poinsard, Marine Kirsch, Steeve Jouini and Véronique Billat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8676; https://0-doi-org.brum.beds.ac.uk/10.3390/ijerph18168676 - 17 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2284

Abstract

Aim: To provide a state-of-the-art review of the last 10 years focusing on cardiac fatigue following a marathon. Methods: The PubMed, Bookshelf and Medline databases were queried during a time span of 10 years to identify studies that met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-four [...] Read more.

Aim: To provide a state-of-the-art review of the last 10 years focusing on cardiac fatigue following a marathon. Methods: The PubMed, Bookshelf and Medline databases were queried during a time span of 10 years to identify studies that met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-four studies focusing only on the impact of marathons on the cardiac function and factors involved in cardiac fatigue were included in this review. Results: Sixteen studies focused on the impact of marathons on several biomarkers (e.g., C-reactive protein, cardiac troponin T). Seven studies focused on the left (LV) or right (RV) ventricular function following a marathon and employed cardiac magnetic resonance, echocardiography, myocardial speckle tracking and heart rate variability to analyze global and regional LV or RV mechanics and the impact of the autonomic nervous system on cardiac function. One study focused on serum profiling and its association with cardiac changes after a marathon. Conclusions: This review reported a negligible impact of marathons on LV and RV systolic and contractile function but a negative impact on LV diastolic function in recreational runners. These impairments are often associated with acute damage to the myocardium. Thus, the advice of the present review to athletes is to adapt their training and have a regular medical monitoring to continue to run marathons while preserving their cardiac health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Marathon: Environmental and Public Health Aspects)

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